{"id":1958,"date":"2017-11-05T12:56:49","date_gmt":"2017-11-05T12:56:49","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/uni.hi.is\/einar\/?p=1958"},"modified":"2017-11-05T12:56:49","modified_gmt":"2017-11-05T12:56:49","slug":"magnus-stephensen-og-natturunnar-yndislegu-fraedi","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/?p=1958","title":{"rendered":"Magn\u00fas Stephensen og n\u00e1tt\u00farunnar yndislegu fr\u00e6\u00f0i"},"content":{"rendered":"

Hin \u00e1hrifamikli uppl\u00fdsingarma\u00f0ur, b\u00f3ka\u00fatgefandi og emb\u00e6ttisma\u00f0ur, Magn\u00fas Stephensen<\/a> (1762-1833), var einn \u00feeirra \u00f6rf\u00e1u \u00cdslendinga sem \u00e1 \u00e1ratugunum \u00ed kringum 1800 kynntu s\u00e9r n\u00e1tt\u00farv\u00edsindi s\u00e9rstaklega, b\u00e6\u00f0i \u00e1 n\u00e1ms\u00e1runum \u00ed\u00a0 Kaupmannah\u00f6fn og s\u00ed\u00f0ar. Hann haf\u00f0i \u00e1 \u00feeim brennandi \u00e1huga og \u00ed anda uppl\u00fdsingarinnar reyndi hann eftir megni a\u00f0 gefa l\u00f6ndum s\u00ednum sm\u00e1 inns\u00fdn \u00ed undraheim v\u00edsindanna me\u00f0 fr\u00f3\u00f0legum greinum og fr\u00e9ttaflutningi. Fullyr\u00f0a m\u00e1 a\u00f0 Magn\u00fas hafi veri\u00f0 fyrsti eiginlegi al\u00fe\u00fd\u00f0ufr\u00e6\u00f0arinn \u00e1 svi\u00f0i n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsinda h\u00e9r \u00e1 landi. Hi\u00f0 sama \u00e1 reyndar vi\u00f0 um \u00fdmis \u00f6nnur svi\u00f0 mannlegrar vi\u00f0leitni, en ekki ver\u00f0ur fjalla\u00f0 frekar um \u00fea\u00f0 \u00ed \u00feessari f\u00e6rslu.<\/p>\n

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Mynd af Magn\u00fasi \u00e1 k\u00e1pu hinnar mj\u00f6g svo fr\u00f3\u00f0legu \u00e6vis\u00f6gu hans eftir Inga Sigur\u00f0sson sagnfr\u00e6\u00f0ing. \u00cd 15. kafla er fjalla\u00f0 s\u00e9rstaklega um \u00fe\u00e1tt n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsinda \u00ed l\u00edfi Magn\u00fasar. M\u00e1lverki\u00f0 er fr\u00e1 1826.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Vi\u00f0horf Mgn\u00fasar til n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsinda koma vel fram \u00ed inngangsor\u00f0um hans a\u00f0 ritger\u00f0inni Um meteora<\/em> fr\u00e1 1783:<\/p>\n

\u00deekking n\u00e1tt\u00farunnar er \u00f3neitanlega ein s\u00fa ind\u00e6lasta speki, sem daglega s\u00fdnir elskendum s\u00ednum, n\u00fd og n\u00fd merki upp\u00e1 Gu\u00f0s undrunarver\u00f0a alm\u00e6tti, v\u00edsd\u00f3m og g\u00e6sku, og framtelur \u00feannveg hans d\u00fdr\u00f0; auk \u00feeirrar \u00f3metanlegu g\u00e6\u00f0a, er h\u00fan veitir \u00ed b\u00fastj\u00f3rn manna. \u00deetta hefur \u00e1f\u00fdst framandi \u00fej\u00f3\u00f0ir, til a\u00f0 athuga grandg\u00e6filega og yfirsko\u00f0a n\u00e1tt\u00faruna, en \u00e1 \u00cdslandi hefur \u00fea\u00f0 hinga\u00f0 til heldur vanr\u00e6kt veri\u00f0, eins og m\u00f6rg \u00f6nnur \u00fearfleg fr\u00e6\u00f0i. G\u00e6tu bl\u00f6\u00f0 \u00feessi […]<\/em> gefi\u00f0 alm\u00faga nokkra betri fr\u00e6\u00f0ingu, \u00e1 uppruna og ors\u00f6k til \u00fev\u00edl\u00edkra tilbur\u00f0a, en \u00e1\u00f0ur haf\u00f0i hann, gengi m\u00e9r eftir \u00f3skum, og vona \u00e9g \u00fe\u00e1, a\u00f0 til einhverra nota koma m\u00e6tti.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

\u00dearna m\u00e1 ekki a\u00f0eins sj\u00e1 greinileg \u00e1hrif fr\u00e1 nytjahugmyndum uppl\u00fdsingarinnar heldur einnig fr\u00e1 n\u00e1tt\u00farugu\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/a>, sem\u00a0 \u00e1 \u00feessum t\u00edma var \u00f3rj\u00fafanlegur hluti af svo til allri umr\u00e6\u00f0u um n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsindi.<\/p>\n

\u00c1ratugum s\u00ed\u00f0ar taldi Magn\u00fas greinilega, a\u00f0 litlar framfarir hef\u00f0u or\u00f0i\u00f0 h\u00e9r \u00e1 landi \u00ed \u00feessum efnum og \u00ed inngangi ritger\u00f0arinnar Um j\u00e1rn og st\u00e1l <\/em>fr\u00e1 1818 segir hann me\u00f0al annars:<\/p>\n

Sko\u00f0an og \u00feekking n\u00e1tt\u00farunnar, hennar e\u00f0lis, krafta og nytsemdir fyrir oss, er b\u00e6\u00f0i einhver s\u00fa veglegasta l\u00e6rd\u00f3msi\u00f0n, sem lei\u00f0ir manneskjur b\u00e6\u00f0i til undrunarfullar vi\u00f0urkenningar Skaparans d\u00e1semdarverka, speki og g\u00e6sku, l\u00edka til eftir\u00feanka a\u00f0 hagn\u00fdta s\u00e9r sem best \u00feau margf\u00f6ldu g\u00e6\u00f0i og me\u00f0\u00f6l, n\u00e1tt\u00faran framb\u00fd\u00f0ur oss, til a\u00f0 gj\u00f6ra oss l\u00edfi\u00f0 \u00e1n\u00e6gjusamt, og fulln\u00e6gja \u00feess \u00fe\u00f6rfum.<\/p>\n

\u00c1 me\u00f0al allar si\u00f0a\u00f0ar \u00fej\u00f3\u00f0ir […]<\/em> hafa vari\u00f0 mikilli \u00e1hyggju og kostg\u00e6fni til, a\u00f0 uppg\u00f6tva n\u00e1tt\u00farunnar leyndard\u00f3ma, grandsko\u00f0a hana, og nota s\u00e9r hennar gjafir sem best, til fr\u00f3\u00f0leiks og til framfara \u00ed vorum b\u00fana\u00f0arh\u00e1ttum, bjargr\u00e6\u00f0is \u00fatvegum, handverkum og \u00fdmsum l\u00e6rd\u00f3ms- og menntagreinum; \u00e1 me\u00f0an fj\u00f6ldi uppbyggilegra, st\u00f3rum betri og fr\u00f3\u00f0legri ritgj\u00f6r\u00f0a \u00ed n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0inni, er hj\u00e1 m\u00f6rgum \u00fej\u00f3\u00f0um \u00fatkomin, og \u00feessa fr\u00e6\u00f0i n\u00fa er af r\u00edkisstj\u00f3rnunum bo\u00f0i\u00f0 me\u00f0 al\u00fa\u00f0 a\u00f0 kenna vi\u00f0 flesta l\u00e6r\u00f0a og h\u00e1sk\u00f3la; j\u00e1, handverka og borgaralega sk\u00f3la \u00ed m\u00f6rgum l\u00f6ndum, hvar n\u00fa \u00feykir \u00feeim m\u00f6nnum, er si\u00f0a\u00f0ir og mennta\u00f0ir nefnast vilja, vanvir\u00f0a a\u00f0 vera me\u00f0 \u00f6llu \u00f3fr\u00f3\u00f0ir, um n\u00e1tt\u00farunnar helstu ni\u00f0urskipun, e\u00f0li, d\u00e1semdir, r\u00edkd\u00f3m og gagnsemi af m\u00f6rgum greinum hennar r\u00edkja, hafa l\u00f6ndum vorum s\u00e1rl\u00edtil hj\u00e1lparme\u00f0ul bo\u00f0ist, allt til \u00feessa, til a\u00f0 auka me\u00f0 uppbyggilega \u00feekkingu \u00feeirra \u00ed n\u00e1tt\u00farunnar yndislegu fr\u00e6\u00f0um.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

En hver eru \u00feessi \u201en\u00e1tt\u00farunnar yndislegu fr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/em>\u201c sem voru Magn\u00fasi svo hugleikin? Innihald ritger\u00f0a hans um n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsindi gefa a\u00f0 sj\u00e1lfs\u00f6g\u00f0u v\u00edsbendingar um svari\u00f0, en gagnlegustu uppl\u00fdsingarnar er hins vegar a\u00f0 finna \u00ed sj\u00e1lfs\u00e6vis\u00f6gu hans<\/a>. \u00dear kemur me\u00f0al annars fram, a\u00f0 n\u00e1mi\u00f0 vi\u00f0 H\u00e1sk\u00f3lann \u00ed Kaupmannah\u00f6fn haf\u00f0i mikil og varanleg \u00e1hrif \u00e1 hugmyndir hans um v\u00edsindi og nytsemi \u00feeirra.<\/p>\n

\u00cdslenskur n\u00e1msma\u00f0ur \u00ed H\u00f6fn
\n<\/span> <\/em><\/p>\n

\u00cd \u00f6llum \u00feeim n\u00e1mskei\u00f0um, sem Magn\u00fas s\u00f3tti til undirb\u00fanings \u00f6\u00f0ru l\u00e6rd\u00f3mspr\u00f3fi (examen philosophicum) vi\u00f0 H\u00e1sk\u00f3lann, haf\u00f0i hann mesta \u00e1n\u00e6gju af kennslu tveggja pr\u00f3fessora, \u00feeirra Christians G. Kratzenstein<\/a> \u00ed \u201en\u00e1tt\u00farul\u00e6rd\u00f3munum (physica experimentali)\u201c og Thomasar Bugge<\/a> \u00ed\u00a0 \u201emathematiskum v\u00edsindum (matesin applicatam)\u201c, \u00fear \u00e1 me\u00f0al stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i. Svo gaman \u00fe\u00f3tti Magn\u00fasi \u00ed t\u00edmum a\u00f0 hann s\u00f3tti a\u00f0 auki einkask\u00f3la, sem \u00feeir Kratzenstein og Bugge h\u00e9ldu, hvor \u00ed s\u00ednu lagi. \u00deessir sk\u00f3lar voru \u00e6tla\u00f0ir \u00f6llum, sem \u00e1huga h\u00f6f\u00f0u \u00e1 efninu og g\u00e1tu borga\u00f0 fyrir kennsluna. \u00dear f\u00f3r fram a\u00f0 s\u00f6gn Magn\u00fasar \u201e\u00fdtarleg kennsla n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsindanna, sta\u00f0fest me\u00f0 physiskum tilraunum (experimentum), og me\u00f0 d\u00fdrm\u00e6tustu \u00fear til heyrandi verkf\u00e6rum\u201c. Sl\u00edkir einkask\u00f3lar (\u201ecollegium privatissimum\u201c) voru algengir \u00ed Kaupmannah\u00f6fn, allt fr\u00e1 mi\u00f0ri sautj\u00e1ndu \u00f6ld og vel fram \u00e1 \u00fe\u00e1 n\u00edtj\u00e1ndu. \u00deeir voru einkum s\u00f3ttir af a\u00f0alsm\u00f6nnum og \u00f6\u00f0ru efnaf\u00f3lki.<\/p>\n

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Til vinstri er Christian G. Kratzenstein (1723-95) pr\u00f3fessor \u00ed l\u00e6knisfr\u00e6\u00f0i og n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0i (einkum e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i og efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i) vi\u00f0 Hafnarh\u00e1sk\u00f3la. H\u00e6gra megin er Thomas Bugge (1740-1815) pr\u00f3fessor \u00ed stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i og st\u00e6r\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0i.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Myndin h\u00e9r fyrir ne\u00f0an s\u00fdnir hluta af fyrirlestran\u00f3tum Magn\u00fasar fr\u00e1 n\u00e1ms\u00e1runum \u00ed Kaupmanah\u00f6fn. Um er a\u00f0 r\u00e6\u00f0a efni \u00far stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i, sem Bugge kenndi. L\u00f6ngu seinna gaf pr\u00f3fessorinn \u00fat fyrirlestra s\u00edna undir nafninu De f\u00f8rste Grunde til den sph\u00e6riske og theoretiske Astronomie, samt den mathematiske Geographie<\/a> (1796). B\u00f3kin var lengi notu\u00f0 vi\u00f0 kennslu \u00ed Kaupmannah\u00f6fn. H\u00fan var jafnframt vel \u00feekkt h\u00e9r \u00e1 landi og \u00ed hana vitna\u00f0.
\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

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Opna \u00far uppskrift Magn\u00fasar af fyrirlestrum Thomasar Bugge \u00ed stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i \u00e1ri\u00f0 1783 (handrit: Lbs. 592, 4to<\/em>). Lengst til h\u00e6gri er teikning af jar\u00f0mi\u00f0jukenningu Pt\u00f3lema\u00edosar. Efri myndin vinstra megin er af s\u00f3lmi\u00f0jukenningu K\u00f3pern\u00edkusar. Vi\u00f0 \u00fe\u00e1 ne\u00f0ri er gefi\u00f0 til kynna, a\u00f0 \u00fear s\u00e9 mynd af jar\u00f0mi\u00f0jukerfi Tychos Brahe. Svo er \u00fe\u00f3 ekki; um er a\u00f0 r\u00e6\u00f0a hugmynd, sem rekja m\u00e1 til Mart\u00edanusar Capella<\/a> fr\u00e1 5. \u00f6ld. R\u00e9tta mynd af kerfi Brahes m\u00e1 sj\u00e1 h\u00e9r<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Fyrir anna\u00f0 l\u00e6rd\u00f3mspr\u00f3f \u00feurfti Magn\u00fas einnig a\u00f0 l\u00e6ra hreina st\u00e6r\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0i (mathesis pura), en ekki var hann s\u00e9rlega hrifinn af kennslunni, sem Joachim M. Geuss<\/a> sinnti \u00e1 \u00feeim t\u00edma.<\/p>\n

Eftir a\u00f0 Magn\u00fas haf\u00f0i starfa\u00f0 \u00e1 \u00cdslandi \u00ed nokkur \u00e1r a\u00f0 loknu lagan\u00e1mi 1788, \u00feurfti hann oft a\u00f0 sigla til Kaupmannahafnar \u00ed emb\u00e6ttiserindum og dvelja \u00fear \u00ed lengri e\u00f0a skemmri t\u00edma. \u00de\u00e1 nota\u00f0i hann \u00e1vallt t\u00e6kif\u00e6ri\u00f0 til a\u00f0 hressa upp \u00e1 \u00feekkingu s\u00edna \u00ed n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsindum. \u00c1 \u00e1runum 1799-1800 og aftur 1807-8 s\u00f3tti hann einkask\u00f3la\u00a0\u201eyfir physik og chymie\u201c hj\u00e1 H. C. \u00d8rsted<\/a> og \u00ed grasafr\u00e6\u00f0i hj\u00e1 Jens W. Hornemann<\/a>. Veturinn 1815-16 s\u00f3tti hann enn og aftur fyrirlestrar\u00f6\u00f0 \u00d8rsteds og hlusta\u00f0i a\u00f0 auki \u00e1 J. H. Smiths<\/a> \u201ea\u00f0d\u00e1anlegu fyrirlestra yfir n\u00e1tt\u00faru- og samblandfr\u00e6\u00f0innar (Physiks og Chymies) miklu not og verkanir \u00e1 saml\u00edfi manna, \u00feeirra b\u00fana\u00f0, \u00ed\u00fer\u00f3ttir, handi\u00f0nir, listir, heilsufar, \u00fatr\u00e9ttingar og st\u00f3rvirkjaupp\u00e1finningar\u201c. S\u00ed\u00f0ast s\u00f3tti Magn\u00fas einkafyrirlestra \u00d8rsteds veturinn 1825-26, a\u00f0eins \u00f6rf\u00e1um \u00e1rum eftir a\u00f0 s\u00e1 s\u00ed\u00f0arnefndi haf\u00f0i hloti\u00f0 heimsfr\u00e6g\u00f0 fyrir uppg\u00f6tvun s\u00edna \u00e1 segul\u00e1hrifum rafstraums<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Af framangreindum l\u00fdsingum Magn\u00fasar \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed, hva\u00f0 honum \u00fe\u00f3tti skemmtilegast og eftirs\u00f3knarver\u00f0ast a\u00f0 l\u00e6ra, er lj\u00f3st a\u00f0 \u201en\u00e1tt\u00farunnar yndislegu fr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/em>\u201c eru fyrst og fremst \u00fe\u00e6r greinar, sem hann kallar n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0i e\u00f0a n\u00e1tt\u00farul\u00e6rd\u00f3m (physik) og samblandsfr\u00e6\u00f0i (chymie).<\/p>\n

\u00ddmislegt um n\u00f6fn fr\u00e6\u00f0igreina, Bugge, Kratzenstein og fleira<\/span>
\n<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00cd dag k\u00f6llum vi\u00f0 \u00fe\u00e6r greinar, sem Magn\u00fas Stephensen haf\u00f0i hva\u00f0 mestan \u00e1huga \u00e1, e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/a> og efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/a> og flokkum undir e\u00f0lisv\u00edsindi<\/a>. R\u00e9tt er a\u00f0 minna \u00e1 \u00ed \u00feessu sambandi, a\u00f0 J\u00f3nas Hallgr\u00edmsson er h\u00f6fundur or\u00f0sins efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i og nota\u00f0i \u00fea\u00f0 fyrst \u00e1ri\u00f0 1835 \u00ed hinni merku grein Um e\u00f0li og uppruna jar\u00f0arinnar<\/em>. Or\u00f0i\u00f0 e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i m\u00e1 v\u00edst rekja til f\u00e9laga hans, T\u00f3masar S\u00e6mundssonar, en \u00fea\u00f0 mun fyrst hafa veri\u00f0 nota\u00f0 \u00ed n\u00fat\u00edmamerkingu sem titill \u00e1 b\u00f3k J. G. Fischers, E\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/em>, fr\u00e1 1852 (h\u00e9r m\u00e1 lesa um \u00fe\u00e1 b\u00f3k og \u00fdmsar a\u00f0rar kennslub\u00e6kur \u00e1 \u00edslensku \u00ed e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/a> og efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/a>.)<\/p>\n

\u00c1 n\u00e1ms\u00e1rum Magn\u00fasar voru\u00a0 stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i og \u00fe\u00e6r greinar e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0innar, \u00fear sem st\u00e6r\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0i kom helst vi\u00f0 s\u00f6gu, settar undir hatt hagn\u00fdttrar st\u00e6r\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0i. Hana l\u00e6r\u00f0i Magn\u00fas hj\u00e1 Bugge og kalla\u00f0i \u201emathematisk v\u00edsindi (matesin applicatam)\u201c, sem n\u00e1\u00f0u yfir \u201esph\u00e6riska og theoretiska astronomie og mathematiska geographie, statik, hydrostatik, hydrolik, aerometrie, mechaniska og optiska l\u00e6rd\u00f3ma\u201c. Vi\u00f0 kennsluna nota\u00f0i Bugge me\u00f0al annars st\u00e6r\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0ib\u00f3k<\/a> Christians Wolff, sem r\u00e6tt var um \u00ed fyrri f\u00e6rslu<\/a>. Eins og \u00fear kemur einnig fram, var\u00f0 Bugge fyrstur til a\u00f0 innlei\u00f0a\u00a0 hugmyndir og a\u00f0fer\u00f0afr\u00e6\u00f0i Newtons<\/a> \u00ed n\u00e1msefni Hafnarh\u00e1sk\u00f3la. Um tengsl Bugges vi\u00f0 rans\u00f3knir \u00e1 \u00cdslandi ver\u00f0ur r\u00e6tt \u00ed komandi f\u00e6rslu.<\/p>\n

Til samanbur\u00f0ar vi\u00f0 hagn\u00fdttu st\u00e6r\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0ina er r\u00e9tt a\u00f0 geta \u00feess, a\u00f0 \u00ed hreinni st\u00e6r\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0i (mathesis pura) kenndi Geuss greinar eins og \u201earitmetik me\u00f0 algebra, geometrie, trigonometria plana et sph\u00e6rica, stereometrie, boginna l\u00edna \u00fatreikning og landam\u00e6lingar\u201c.<\/p>\n

\u00c1\u00f0ur en Kratzenstein h\u00f3f kennslu vi\u00f0 Hafnarh\u00e1sk\u00f3la \u00e1ri\u00f0 1753 voru undirst\u00f6\u00f0ur e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i, efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i og annarra n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsinda eing\u00f6ngu kenndar \u00e1 heimspekilegum n\u00f3tum undir heitinu n\u00e1tt\u00faruspeki (physica e\u00f0a philosophia naturalis) \u00ed heimspekideild. \u00dear voru st\u00e6r\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0ilegu l\u00e6rd\u00f3mslistirnar (sj\u00e1 h\u00e9r<\/a>) einnig sta\u00f0settar, \u00fev\u00ed n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsindadeild kom ekki til s\u00f6gunnar vi\u00f0 Hafnarh\u00e1sk\u00f3la fyrr en \u00e1ri\u00f0 1850. Engar tilraunir voru ger\u00f0ar \u00ed kennslunni, en prakt\u00edsk efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i, fyrst og fremst lyfjafr\u00e6\u00f0i (materia medica), var kennd \u00ed l\u00e6knadeild og \u00ed ap\u00f3tekum \u00fati \u00ed b\u00e6.<\/p>\n

Eins og svo margir a\u00f0rir \u00e1 \u00feessum t\u00edma var Kratzenstein undir talsver\u00f0um \u00e1hrifum fr\u00e1 hugmyndafr\u00e6\u00f0i Christians Wolff<\/a>. Fyrrum kennari hans \u00ed Halle, Johann Gottlob Kr\u00fcger<\/a> haf\u00f0i einnig veruleg \u00e1hrif \u00e1 verkefnaval hans og s\u00f6mulei\u00f0is \u00fdmis verk Newtons, einkum \u00fe\u00f3 lj\u00f3sfr\u00e6\u00f0in<\/a>. \u00de\u00e1 s\u00f3tti hann hugmyndir til margra fylgismanna Newtons, \u00fear \u00e1 me\u00f0al Johns T. Desaguliers<\/a>, Willems J. ‘s Gravesande<\/a>,\u00a0 Jean Antoine Nollet<\/a> og\u00a0 Pieters van Musschenbroek<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Me\u00f0al annars fyrir \u00e1hrif \u00feessara kennara og fr\u00e6\u00f0imanna, innleiddi Kratzenstein s\u00fdnitilraunir \u00ed kennslu s\u00edna \u00ed e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i og efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i, nokku\u00f0 sem ekki haf\u00f0i \u00e1\u00f0ur \u00feekkst \u00ed \u00feessum fr\u00e6\u00f0um vi\u00f0 Hafnarh\u00e1sk\u00f3la. Eftir sem \u00e1\u00f0ur ger\u00f0u nemendurnir sj\u00e1lfir \u00fe\u00f3 engar tilraunir. \u00deessi n\u00fdjung ger\u00f0i \u00fea\u00f0 a\u00f0 verkum, a\u00f0 \u00ed sta\u00f0 n\u00e1tt\u00faruspeki var n\u00fa fari\u00f0 a\u00f0 tala um physica experimentali<\/em> (n\u00e1tt\u00faruspeki, bygg\u00f0a \u00e1 tilraunum). A\u00f0 \u00fe\u00fdskri fyrirmynd var jafnframt fari\u00f0 a\u00f0 nota n\u00f6fnin n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0i og n\u00e1tt\u00farul\u00e6rd\u00f3mur (d. Naturl\u00e6re; \u00fe. Naturlehre) yfir \u00feetta efni.<\/p>\n

\u00c1hrif Kratzensteins \u00e1 Magn\u00fas Stephensen og a\u00f0ra \u00cdslendinga<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

\u00cd kennslu Kratzensteins var \u00ed upphafi ekki a\u00f0eins fjalla\u00f0 um e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i og efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i samt\u00edmans, heldur einnig \u00fdmis \u00f6nnur n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsindi. \u00deetta breyttist \u00fe\u00f3 sm\u00e1m saman og \u00e1herslan \u00e1 e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i og efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i f\u00f3r st\u00f6\u00f0ugt vaxandi. Flj\u00f3tlega eftir komuna til Kaupmannhafnar gaf Kratzenstein \u00fat \u00e1hrifamikla kennslu\u00f3k \u00e1 lat\u00ednu, Systema physicae experimentalis<\/a>. Upp \u00far henni skrifa\u00f0i hann s\u00ed\u00f0ar einfaldara yfirlitsrit \u00e1 \u00fe\u00fdsku, Vorlesungen \u00fcber die experimental Physik<\/a><\/span><\/span>, sem kom \u00ed m\u00f6rgum \u00fatg\u00e1fum \u00e1 seinni hluta \u00e1tj\u00e1ndu aldar og a\u00f0 lokum \u00ed danskri \u00fe\u00fd\u00f0ingu \u00e1ri\u00f0 1791.<\/p>\n

Me\u00f0 \u00e6rnum tilkostna\u00f0i kom Kratzenstein s\u00e9r upp miklu t\u00e6kjasafni, sem hann n\u00fdtti vi\u00f0 kennsluna, b\u00e6\u00f0i vi\u00f0 H\u00e1k\u00f3lann og heima hj\u00e1 s\u00e9r \u00ed einkask\u00f3lanum. Hugmyndin var, a\u00f0 eftir hans daga t\u00e6ki H\u00e1sk\u00f3linn vi\u00f0 safninu. Af \u00fev\u00ed var\u00f0 \u00fe\u00f3 ekki, \u00fev\u00ed t\u00e6kin ey\u00f0il\u00f6g\u00f0ust svo til \u00f6ll \u00ed miklum bruna \u00e1ri\u00f0 1795. \u00dea\u00f0 vill \u00fe\u00f3 svo heppilega til, a\u00f0 \u00ed S\u00f3rey m\u00e1 finna gl\u00e6silegt t\u00e6kjasafn fr\u00e1 svipu\u00f0um t\u00edma. \u00dea\u00f0 var upphaflega \u00ed eigu emb\u00e6ttismannsins og n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0ingsins Adams W. Hauch<\/a> og gefur v\u00e6ntanlega einhverja hugmynd um \u00fea\u00f0, hvers konar t\u00e6ki Kratzenstein \u00e1tti.<\/p>\n

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Til vinstri er n\u00faningsv\u00e9l<\/a> af Ramsden-ger\u00f0 fr\u00e1 seinni hluta \u00e1tj\u00e1ndu aldar. Me\u00f0 henni voru framleiddar rafhle\u00f0slur, me\u00f0al annars til \u00feess a\u00f0 hla\u00f0a Leiden-krukkur<\/a>, eins og \u00fe\u00e1 sem s\u00fdnd er til h\u00e6gri. T\u00e6ki af \u00feessu tagi er a\u00f0 finna \u00ed safni Adams Hauch.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

\u00dea\u00f0 er lj\u00f3st af \u00e6vis\u00f6gu Mgn\u00fasar Stephensen, a\u00f0 hann heilla\u00f0ist mj\u00f6g af fyrirlestrum Kratzensteins \u00ed e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i og efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i og ekki s\u00ed\u00f0ur af \u00feeim f\u00edna t\u00e6kjab\u00fana\u00f0i sem hann nota\u00f0i vi\u00f0 s\u00fdnikennsluna. \u00deetta var\u00f0 Magn\u00fasi me\u00f0al annars hvatning til a\u00f0 setja saman dr\u00f6g a\u00f0 kennslub\u00f3k \u00ed n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0i, sem hann samdi \u00e1 d\u00f6nsku \u00e1 n\u00e1ms\u00e1runum og \u00e6tla\u00f0i s\u00ed\u00f0an a\u00f0 umskrifa \u00e1 \u00edslensku og gefa \u00fat myndskreytta. \u00deetta gekk svo langt, a\u00f0 \u00e1ri\u00f0 1783 f\u00e9kk hann tvo \u00edslenska st\u00fadenta til a\u00f0 hreinskrifa handriti\u00f0 (sj\u00e1 mynd).<\/p>\n

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Fors\u00ed\u00f0an \u00e1 handriti Magn\u00fasar fr\u00e1 1783 a\u00f0 fyirrhuga\u00f0ri kennslub\u00f3k hans \u00ed n\u00e1tt\u00farul\u00e6rd\u00f3munum (Lbs. 560, 4to<\/em>). Handriti\u00f0 er \u00e1 d\u00f6nsku \u00fe\u00f3tt titillinn s\u00e9 \u00e1 lat\u00ednu. \u00c1 \u00edslensku hlj\u00f3\u00f0ar hann svo: Skipulegt \u00e1grip af n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0<\/span>i<\/span>, sami\u00f0 \u00ed H\u00f6fn eftir mikla yfirlegu og \u00e1stundun af Magn\u00fasi Stephensen \u00e1 h\u00e1sk\u00f3la\u00e1rum hans. \u00dear afritu\u00f0u \u00feeir P\u00e1ll Hj\u00e1lmarsson, s\u00ed\u00f0ar rektor \u00e1 H\u00f3lum, og G\u00edsli J\u00f3nsson Jakobssonar, s\u00ed\u00f0ar prestur \u00ed Noregi, \u00feetta eintak eftir eiginhandriti hans me\u00f0an h\u00f6fundur lei\u00f0beindi \u00feeim \u00ed n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0i og st\u00e6r\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0ilegum l\u00e6rd\u00f3mslistum fyrir anna\u00f0 l\u00e6rd\u00f3mspr\u00f3f.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

\u00deegar handriti\u00f0 er sko\u00f0a\u00f0 m\u00e1 sj\u00e1, a\u00f0 Magn\u00fas hefur haft \u00e1\u00f0urnefnda kennslub\u00f3k Kratzensteins til hli\u00f0sj\u00f3nar vi\u00f0 skriftirnar, \u00fe\u00f3tt \u00fdmislegt s\u00e9 \u00f6\u00f0ruv\u00edsi upp sett og sennilega teki\u00f0 \u00far \u00f6\u00f0rum ritum.<\/p>\n

\u00deetta metna\u00f0arfulla verkefni gekk \u00fev\u00ed mi\u00f0ur ekki upp hj\u00e1 Magn\u00fasi, af \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0um sem hann telur upp \u00ed sj\u00e1lfs\u00e6vis\u00f6gunni: \u00cd fyrsta lagi var kostna\u00f0urinn vi\u00f0 myndskreytinguna allt of mikill. Hann \u00feurfti svo a\u00f0 fara til \u00cdslands \u00ed mi\u00f0jum kl\u00ed\u00f0um (vegna Skaft\u00e1reldanna), sem skapa\u00f0i alls konar vandr\u00e6\u00f0i. \u00de\u00e1 voru framfarir \u00ed n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0inni (les e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i og efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i) svo \u00f6rar a\u00f0 hann gat varla fylgst me\u00f0. \u00cd s\u00ed\u00f0asta lagi<\/p>\n

fann [hann]<\/em> jafnan,a\u00f0 n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0in, hversu vegleg, ind\u00e6l og gagnleg sem h\u00fan er, eftir n\u00e6rveranda l\u00e6rd\u00f3ms- og efna\u00e1standi og st\u00f6\u00f0u vorra landsmanna h\u00e9r og f\u00e6\u00f0 \u00feeirra, sem verja hugviti og g\u00e1fum til dj\u00faps\u00e6rra l\u00e6rd\u00f3ma, muni h\u00e9r \u00e1 landi off\u00e1a velunnara finna, til a\u00f0 halda nokkurn ska\u00f0lausan af st\u00f3rkostna\u00f0i til \u00fatg\u00e1fu \u00fev\u00edl\u00edkra fr\u00e6\u00f0a me\u00f0 eirgr\u00f6fnum afm\u00e1lunum til uppl\u00fdsingar, og neyddist [hann]<\/em> \u00fev\u00ed til a\u00f0 gefa \u00fev\u00edl\u00edkt \u00e1form fr\u00e1 s\u00e9r.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Magn\u00fas \u00e1tti \u00fe\u00f3 eftir a\u00f0 skrifa heilmi\u00f0 um n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsindi og hagn\u00fdtingu \u00feeirra fyrir landa s\u00edna, eins og fram kemur h\u00e9r \u00e1 eftir. \u00cd \u00feeim verkum m\u00e1 v\u00ed\u00f0a sj\u00e1 \u00e1hrif fr\u00e1 Kratzenstein og kennslu hans.<\/p>\n

\u00deeir voru fleiri \u00cdslendingarnir, sem voru svo l\u00e1nsamir a\u00f0 nj\u00f3ta lei\u00f0sagnar Christians Kratzensteins \u00ed Kaupmannah\u00f6fn. Eins og fram hefur komi\u00f0 var hann b\u00e6\u00f0i pr\u00f3fessor \u00ed n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0i (physica experimentali) og l\u00e6knisfr\u00e6\u00f0i. Me\u00f0al \u00feeirra \u00edslensku l\u00e6kna, sem hj\u00e1 honum l\u00e6r\u00f0u, voru \u00feeir Bjarni P\u00e1lsson<\/a>, sem \u00e1ri\u00f0 1760 var\u00f0 fyrsti landl\u00e6knir \u00e1 \u00cdslandi, og J\u00f3n Sveinsson<\/a>, sem t\u00f3k vi\u00f0 af Bjarna 1780. \u00de\u00e1 var P\u00e9tur Thorstensen<\/a>, s\u00ed\u00f0ar l\u00e6knir \u00ed Noregi og kennari \u00ed n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0i (\u00fe.e. efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i, e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i og bergfr\u00e6\u00f0i) vi\u00f0 n\u00e1musk\u00f3lann \u00e1 K\u00f3ngsbergi, einnig nemandi Kratzensteins.<\/p>\n

Sumari\u00f0 1757 fylgdist Bjarni P\u00e1lson, a\u00f0 bei\u00f0ni Kratzensteins, me\u00f0 g\u00f6ngu s\u00f3lar \u00e1 nor\u00f0austurlandi og kanna\u00f0i jafnframt misv\u00edsun seguln\u00e1lar, me\u00f0al annars \u00ed tengslum vi\u00f0 nor\u00f0urlj\u00f3s. Um \u00feessar athuganir samdi hann \u00edtarlega sk\u00fdrslu, Observationes circa elevationem Poli et declinationem Solis, acusqve Magneticae in Islandia boreali<\/em>, og sendi til Hafnar.<\/p>\n

Hannes Finnsson<\/a>, s\u00ed\u00f0ar biskup og kennari Magn\u00fasar Stephensen \u00ed Sk\u00e1lholti, var einn \u00feeirra Hafnarst\u00fadenta sem naut kennslu Kratzensteins \u00ed n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0i. Hann var vel a\u00f0 s\u00e9r \u00ed \u00feeim fr\u00e6\u00f0um og birti me\u00f0al annars nokkrar hugvekjur um e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i \u00ed al\u00fe\u00fd\u00f0ulestrarb\u00f3kinni Kv\u00f6ldv\u00f6kur,<\/em> sem kom \u00fat \u00ed tveimur bindum 1796-97. \u00deessar hugvekjur eru:\u00a0 Loft og vindur<\/a>; Litir sem s\u00fdnast<\/a>; Um halastj\u00f6rnur<\/a>; E\u00f0lis\u00feyngd manneskju \u00ed vatni<\/a> og Manneskja, er ei gat sokki\u00f0 \u00ed vatni, og vatn, sem enginn getur sokki\u00f0 \u00ed<\/a>.<\/p>\n

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Hannes Finnsson\u00a0(1739-1796) \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Sveinn P\u00e1lsson (1762-1840)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

A\u00f0 lokum skal nefndur s\u00e1 af nemendum Kratzensteins, sem \u00ed dag er sennilega \u00feekktastur \u00feeirra allra me\u00f0al \u00edslenskra n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsindamanna. \u00dea\u00f0 er l\u00e6knirinn og n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0ingurinn Sveinn P\u00e1lsson<\/a>. \u00cd sj\u00e1lfs\u00e6vis\u00f6gu<\/a> sinni segir hann me\u00f0al annars \u00feetta um upphaf n\u00e1ms s\u00edns \u00ed Kaupmannah\u00f6fn:<\/p>\n

\u00deennan sinn fyrsta vetur [1787-88]<\/em> heyr\u00f0i Sveinn dyggilega \u00fe\u00e1 philosophisku pr\u00f3fessora: Risbrigh, Bugge og einkanlegast Kratzenstein (hvers pr\u00e6lectiones in physicam experimentalem hann st\u00f6\u00f0ugt s\u00f3tti me\u00f0an hann dvaldi \u00ed H\u00f6fn, og rita\u00f0i \u00fear af heilst\u00f3ra b\u00f3k \u00ed 4to me\u00f0 f\u00edgurum yfir \u00fea\u00f0 markver\u00f0asta).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

\u00dev\u00ed mi\u00f0ur mun \u00feessi heilst\u00f3ra b\u00f3k Sveins n\u00fa me\u00f0 \u00f6llu gl\u00f6tu\u00f0, en \u00fer\u00e1tt fyrir a\u00f0 hann hafi flj\u00f3tlega sn\u00fai\u00f0 s\u00e9r a\u00f0 \u00f6\u00f0rum greinum en e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i og efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i, \u00fe\u00e1 var \u00e1hugi hans \u00e1 n\u00e1msefni Kratzensteins verulegur. \u00dev\u00ed til vitnis m\u00e1 benda \u00e1 hina st\u00f3rmerku grein hans Um kalkverkun af j\u00f6r\u00f0u og steinum<\/a> fr\u00e1 1788. Eftir \u00fev\u00ed \u00e9g best veit, er \u00feetta fyrsta alv\u00f6ru greinin um efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i eftir \u00edslenskan h\u00f6fund. H\u00fan er skrifu\u00f0 r\u00e9tt \u00e1\u00f0ur en byltingakenndar hugmyndir Lavoisiers<\/a> b\u00e1rust til Danmerkur og byggir \u00fev\u00ed \u00e1 hinni g\u00f6mlu efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i G. E. Stahls<\/a> og fylgismanna hans, en Kratzenstein var einn \u00feeirra. Sveinn fjallar \u00fev\u00ed um eldefni\u00f0<\/a> (flogiston) eins og ekkert s\u00e9 e\u00f0lilegra. Ekki lei\u00f0 \u00fe\u00f3 \u00e1 l\u00f6ngu \u00fear til hin n\u00fdja efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/a> haf\u00f0i rutt s\u00e9r til r\u00fams \u00ed Danm\u00f6rku.<\/p>\n

Til gamans m\u00e1 svo geta \u00feess, a\u00f0 \u00ed \u00e1\u00f0urnefndri grein notar Sveinn or\u00f0i\u00f0 n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsi yfir physik og br\u00e6\u00f0slufr\u00e6\u00f0i fyrir chemie. \u00de\u00e1 \u00fe\u00fd\u00f0ir hann phlogisto sem brennuefni. \u00cd verkum s\u00ednum eftir 1800 minnist Magn\u00fas Stephensen oftar en einu sinni \u00e1 hina g\u00f6mlu efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i. \u00dear kallar hann eldefni\u00f0 me\u00f0al annars brenniveru.<\/p>\n

En n\u00fa er komi\u00f0 a\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 kynna stuttlega \u00feau fr\u00e6\u00f0slurit Magn\u00fasar Stephensen sem fjalla um e\u00f0lisv\u00edsindi og hann birti \u00e1 prenti, saml\u00f6ndum s\u00ednum til gagns og yndisauka. \u00deegar ritsm\u00ed\u00f0arnar eru lesnar, er mikilv\u00e6gt a\u00f0 hafa \u00ed huga, a\u00f0 \u00fe\u00e6r eru tveggja alda gamlar og skrifa\u00f0ar \u00ed allt \u00f6\u00f0ruv\u00edsi umhverfi en vi\u00f0 eigum a\u00f0 venjast. Magn\u00fas var frumkv\u00f6\u00f0ull \u00e1 \u00feessu svi\u00f0i og \u00e1rum saman var hann eini ma\u00f0urinn h\u00e9r \u00e1 landi, sem ger\u00f0i tilraun til a\u00f0 kynna \u00edslenskri al\u00fe\u00fd\u00f0u n\u00fdjungar \u00ed v\u00edsindum \u00e1 m\u00e1li sem h\u00fan gat skili\u00f0.<\/p>\n

Um meteora<\/span>
\n<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00cd innganginum a\u00f0 hinni miklu ritger\u00f0 Magn\u00fasar, Um meteora, e\u00f0a ve\u00f0r\u00e1ttufar, loftsj\u00f3nir og a\u00f0ra n\u00e1tt\u00farulega tilbur\u00f0i \u00e1 sj\u00f3 og landi<\/a>, segir h\u00f6fundurinn um efni\u00f0:<\/p>\n

Meteora kalla menn alla \u00fe\u00e1 n\u00e1tt\u00farulegu tilbur\u00f0i, sem stundum sj\u00e1st og ver\u00f0ur vart vi\u00f0 \u00e1 vatni, j\u00f6r\u00f0u og lofti, e\u00f0a fyrir ofan sj\u00f3ndeildarhringinn; en einkum loftsj\u00f3nir; e\u00f0a hva\u00f0 sem ber fyrir augun, eins og hangandi e\u00f0a framhj\u00e1 l\u00ed\u00f0andi \u00ed dampahvolfinu [lofthj\u00fapnum]<\/em>.<\/p>\n

Nokkur meteora hafa sinn uppruna og veru af loftinu sj\u00e1lfu, sem af \u00fdmsum \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0um fer \u00far lagi um stund; \u00f6nnur af vatninu, og vatnsd\u00f6mpum, sem af j\u00f6r\u00f0inni st\u00edga upp \u00ed lofti\u00f0; nokkur orsakast af allskonar eldfimum hlutum, sem \u00ed kviknar ni\u00f0ri \u00ed j\u00f6r\u00f0inni e\u00f0a og \u00ed loftinu; sum koma og af \u00fev\u00ed, a\u00f0 s\u00f3largeislarnir sk\u00edna \u00e1 sveimandi dampa \u00ed loftinu, sem vi\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 ver\u00f0a bjartir og sk\u00ednandi.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

\u00deessi fyrirb\u00e6ri (meteora) a\u00f0greinir hann svo \u00ed tvo meginflokka me\u00f0 undirflokkum:<\/p>\n

I. \u00deau verulegu <\/strong>(hypostatica):<\/strong> (1) Loftkynju\u00f0<\/em> (vindur, hvirfilvindur, fellibylur); (2) Vatnskynju\u00f0<\/em> (\u00feoka, sk\u00fd, d\u00f6gg, hr\u00edm, h\u00e9la, regn, snj\u00f3r, hagl, fl\u00f3\u00f0 og fjara, sk\u00fdstrokkar) og (3) Brennandi og l\u00fdsandi<\/em> (nor\u00f0urlj\u00f3s, draugar, stj\u00f6rnuhr\u00f6p, v\u00edgahnettir, sn\u00e6lj\u00f3s, hr\u00e6vareldar, leiftur, eldingar og \u00ferumur, brenniv\u00ednsdampar og sj\u00e1lfs\u00edkveikjur, eldgos, eldgufur, jar\u00f0skj\u00e1lftar, l\u00fdsing og r\u00f6kkur).<\/p>\n

II. \u00deau fyrirberandi<\/strong> (emphatica):<\/strong> (regnboginn, s\u00f3lhringir og rosabaugar, aukas\u00f3lir, s\u00f3ldr\u00f6g, fata morgana).<\/p>\n

\"\"
T\u00edmam\u00f3taritger\u00f0 Magn\u00fasar fr\u00e1 1783 um lofthj\u00fapsfyrirb\u00e6ri (meteora).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

\u00cd verkinu vitnar Magn\u00fas \u00ed kennslub\u00e6kur og fr\u00e6\u00f0irit af \u00fdmsu tagi, svo sem Vorlesungen \u00fcber die experimental Physik<\/a> eftir Kratzenstein,<\/span><\/span>\u00a0 Institutiones physicae conscriptae in usus academicos<\/a> eftir Musschenbroek, \u00feri\u00f0ja bindi\u00f0 af\u00a0<\/span><\/span> Vorlesungen \u00fcber die Experimental-Natur-Lehre<\/a> eftir\u00a0 Nollet og fyrsta bindi\u00f0 af\u00a0 <\/span><\/span>Naturlehre<\/a> eftir Kr\u00fcger. Einnig notast hann vi\u00f0 anna\u00f0 bindi\u00f0 af \u00a0Allerhand n\u00fctzliche Versuche<\/a> eftir Wolff,<\/span><\/span> anna\u00f0 bindi\u00f0 af Philosophia naturalis sive physica dogmatica<\/em> eftir M. C. Hanov<\/a> og d\u00f6nsku \u00fe\u00fd\u00f0inguna \u00e1 hinu mikla \u00e1tta binda verki Valmonts de Bomare<\/a> um n\u00e1tt\u00farus\u00f6gu (Den Almindelige Naturhistorie i form af et Dictionnaire<\/em>).\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Eins og sj\u00e1 m\u00e1 af verkunum, sem Magn\u00fas vitnar \u00ed, haf\u00f0i efni ritger\u00f0arinnar Um meteora<\/em> lengi veri\u00f0 hluti af e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0inni og svo var \u00e1fram, vel fram eftir n\u00edtj\u00e1ndu \u00f6ldinni. Sem d\u00e6mi m\u00e1 nefna, a\u00f0 \u00ed E\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/em> Fischers fr\u00e1 1852, fjallar s\u00ed\u00f0asti kaflinn um svo til sama efni og ritger\u00f0 Magn\u00fasar. \u00cd dag falla ranns\u00f3knir \u00e1 \u00feessum fyrirb\u00e6rum \u00fdmist undir ve\u00f0urfr\u00e6\u00f0i, h\u00e1loftafr\u00e6\u00f0i e\u00f0a jar\u00f0e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i, fr\u00e6\u00f0igreinar sem allar teljast til raunv\u00edsinda.<\/p>\n

Stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

\u00c1ri\u00f0 1781 birtist \u00ed \u00fe\u00fd\u00f0ingu Gu\u00f0mundar \u00deorgr\u00edmssonar prests\u00a0 (1753-90) \u00f6rl\u00edtil umfj\u00f6llun um stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i og heimsmynd \u00ed verkinu Undirv\u00edsan \u00ed N\u00e1tt\u00faruhistor\u00edunni fyrir \u00fe\u00e1, sem anna\u00f0 hvort alls ekkert e\u00f0a l\u00edti\u00f0 vita af henni<\/a>\u00a0 (bls. 232-244) eftir landafr\u00e6\u00f0inginn A. F. B\u00fcsching<\/a>. \u00dear var \u00ed fyrsta sinn r\u00e6tt um s\u00f3lmi\u00f0jukenningu K\u00f3pern\u00edkusar<\/a> \u00e1 \u00edslensku.<\/p>\n

\u00dea\u00f0 var svo ekki fyrr en sext\u00e1n \u00e1rum s\u00ed\u00f0ar, 1797, sem n\u00e6st var fjalla\u00f0 um stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i og heimsfr\u00e6\u00f0i \u00e1 \u00edslensku og \u00fear h\u00e9lt Magn\u00fas Stephensen \u00e1 penna. \u00deetta voru ritger\u00f0irnar\u00a0Alstirndi himinninn<\/a> og\u00a0 Vorir s\u00f3lheimar<\/a>, fr\u00f3\u00f0legar yfirlitsgreinar fyrir \u00edslenska lesendur. Af greinunum m\u00e1 sj\u00e1, a\u00f0 Magn\u00fas hefur ekki a\u00f0eins l\u00e6rt margt gagnlegt hj\u00e1 Thomas Bugge, heldur einnig teki\u00f0 upp \u00fdmsar sko\u00f0anir hans (og \u00feeirra\u00a0 Williams Herschel<\/a> og Johanns E. Bode<\/a>), me\u00f0al annars um bygg\u00f0 \u00e1 s\u00f3linni og tunglinu og fleira skemmtilegt. Eins og t\u00ed\u00f0ka\u00f0ist \u00e1 \u00feessum t\u00edma er umfj\u00f6llunin gegns\u00fdr\u00f0 af n\u00e1tt\u00farugu\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0i.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Ensk teikning af s\u00f3lkerfinu fr\u00e1 1798. Yst er braut \u00daranusar, sem fannst 1781. \u00dear stendur skrifa\u00f0 Georgian Planet<\/em>. \u00c1st\u00e6\u00f0an er s\u00fa a\u00f0 finnandinn, William Herschel, vildi kalla reikistj\u00f6rnuna Georg, eftir vini s\u00ednum og styrkveitanda, Georgi III Englandskonungi. \u00ddmsir a\u00f0rir vildu kalla hana Herschel, en sem betur fer var\u00f0 nafni\u00f0 \u00daranus a\u00f0 lokum fyrir valinu fyrir tilstilli Johanns Bode.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Ekki er \u00f3l\u00edklegt a\u00f0 Magn\u00fas hafi einnig or\u00f0i\u00f0 fyrir \u00e1hrifum af hinni \u00e1g\u00e6tu b\u00f3k danska kennimannsins Christians Bastholm<\/a> fr\u00e1 1787, Philosophie for Ul\u00e6rde<\/a>, sem var vel \u00feekkt h\u00e9r \u00e1 landi \u00e1 \u00feessum \u00e1rum.<\/p>\n

\u00c1ri\u00f0 1798 kom \u00fat merkt verk fr\u00e1 prentsmi\u00f0ju Magn\u00fasar Stephensen \u00ed Leir\u00e1rg\u00f6r\u00f0um. \u00dea\u00f0 var S\u00e1 gu\u00f0lega \u00feenkjandi n\u00e1tt\u00farusko\u00f0ari<\/a> eftir\u00a0 P. F. Suhm<\/a> \u00ed \u00fe\u00fd\u00f0ingu s\u00e9ra J\u00f3ns J\u00f3nssonar<\/a> \u00e1 M\u00f6\u00f0rufelli.\u00a0 \u00dear er me\u00f0al annars a\u00f0 finna \u00e1g\u00e6tis yfirlit yfir stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i (bls. 95-123). Riti\u00f0 er \u00fe\u00f3 einkum \u00e1hugavert fyrir \u00fe\u00e6r sakir, a\u00f0 J\u00f3n gerir mun meira en a\u00f0 \u00fe\u00fd\u00f0a ritger\u00f0 Suhms,\u00a0Verdens Bygning<\/em>, fr\u00e1 1763. Ritger\u00f0in, sem fjallar stuttlega um steinar\u00edki\u00f0, jurtar\u00edki\u00f0, d\u00fdrar\u00edki\u00f0, e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i, efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i, stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i, l\u00edfe\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i og s\u00e1larfr\u00e6\u00f0i, er upphalega samin \u00ed anda g\u00f6mlu n\u00e1tt\u00faruspekinnar (philosophia naturalis)<\/em>, en J\u00f3n b\u00e6tir vi\u00f0 fj\u00f6lda ne\u00f0anm\u00e1lsgreina me\u00f0 n\u00e1nari \u00fatsk\u00fdringum og n\u00fdjungum og breytir verkinu \u00feannig \u00ed hi\u00f0 \u00e1g\u00e6tasta rit um hina n\u00fdrri n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0i (naturl\u00e6re).<\/p>\n

Tuttugu og \u00feremur \u00e1rum s\u00ed\u00f0ar, 1821, kom \u00fat \u00ed Kaupmannah\u00f6fn fyrra bindi\u00f0 af Almennri landaskipunarfr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/a>, sem inniheldur me\u00f0al annars \u00edtarlega umfj\u00f6llun um himinhveli\u00f0 og jar\u00f0k\u00faluna, sn\u00faning \u00feeirra og bauga, g\u00f6ngu tungls og s\u00f3lar, t\u00edmatal og fleira s\u00edgilt og gagnlegt (bls. 1-77).\u00a0 \u00c1ri\u00f0 1822 h\u00f3f Bj\u00f6rn Gunnlaugsson svo kennslu vi\u00f0 Bessasta\u00f0ak\u00f3la og segja m\u00e1 a\u00f0 \u00fe\u00e1 hefjist n\u00fdtt skei\u00f0 \u00ed s\u00f6gu st\u00e6r\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0i, stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i, e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i og efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i \u00e1 \u00cdslandi. Um \u00fea\u00f0 er me\u00f0al annars fjalla\u00f0 \u00ed grein<\/a> Einars H. Gu\u00f0mundssonar fr\u00e1 2003.<\/p>\n

Samblandsfr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

Magn\u00fas Stephensen var uppi \u00e1 t\u00edmum, \u00feegar veruleg \u00fer\u00f3un \u00e1tti s\u00e9r sta\u00f0 \u00ed efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i, varmafr\u00e6\u00f0i og rafmagnsfr\u00e6\u00f0i, me\u00f0al annars \u00ed tengslum vi\u00f0 hugmyndafr\u00e6\u00f0i uppl\u00fdsingarinnar, vaxandi \u00e1huga \u00e1 n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsindum og \u00fearfir i\u00f0nbyltingarinnar. Hann reyndi eftir megni a\u00f0 fylgjast me\u00f0 n\u00fdjungum \u00e1 \u00feessum og tengdum svi\u00f0um og koma uppl\u00fdsingunum \u00e1fram til landa sinna. \u00dea\u00f0 ger\u00f0i hann til d\u00e6mis \u00ed fr\u00e9ttapislum og greinum \u00ed m\u00e1na\u00f0arritinu Klausturp\u00f3stinum.<\/a> Ein \u00feessara ritsm\u00ed\u00f0a, Helstu lofttegundir<\/em>, ver\u00f0ur kynnt h\u00e9r \u00e1 eftir. Fyrst ver\u00f0ur \u00fe\u00f3 r\u00e6tt stuttlega um langa og mikla grein, sem hann birti \u00e1ri\u00f0 1818 \u00ed safnritinu Margv\u00edstlegt gaman og alvara<\/em> og fjallar um i\u00f0na\u00f0arefnafr\u00e6\u00f0i.<\/p>\n

\"\"
J\u00e1rnvinnsla \u00ed B\u00e6rums Verk<\/a><\/em> \u00ed Noregi undir lok \u00e1tj\u00e1ndu aldar.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Eins og nafni\u00f0 gefur til kynna sn\u00fdst greinin, Um j\u00e1rn og st\u00e1l<\/a>, fyrst og fremst um hin mikilv\u00e6gu efni j\u00e1rn<\/a> og st\u00e1l<\/a>, eiginleika \u00feeirra, vinnslu og notkun. H\u00f6fundur fer \u00edtarlega \u00ed efni\u00f0 og ver\u00f0ur innihaldinu ekki l\u00fdst n\u00e1nar h\u00e9r. \u00de\u00f3 er r\u00e9tt a\u00f0 nefna, a\u00f0 \u00ed mi\u00f0ri greininni er stutt umfj\u00f6llun um efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i sem fr\u00e6\u00f0igrein. \u00dear segir Magn\u00fas um<\/p>\n

Chemie […],<\/em> \u00feessa d\u00fdr\u00f0legu grein n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0innar, \u00e1n hverrar enginn m\u00e1 n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00f3\u00f0ur nefnast. H\u00fan kennir a\u00f0 \u00feekkja allra hluta undirst\u00f6\u00f0uefni, a\u00f0 rannsaka \u00feeirra sambland, og a\u00f0 a\u00f0skilja \u00feeirra parta \u00ed einf\u00f6ld upprunaefni (element). L\u00edka a\u00f0 blanda m\u00f6rgum \u00feeirra saman aftur til l\u00edkrar veru, og ummynda \u00fe\u00e1 \u00ed a\u00f0rar me\u00f0 \u00feeirri sambl\u00f6ndun. \u00dear \u00feetta ske\u00f0ur oft \u00e1n hita e\u00f0a br\u00e6\u00f0slu, me\u00f0 samblandi \u00fdmislegra hluta, jafnvel kaldra, e\u00f0a svo, a\u00f0 ekki megi br\u00e6\u00f0sla nefnast, finnst m\u00e9r or\u00f0i\u00f0 samblandsfr\u00e6\u00f0i n\u00e6st koma a\u00f0 l\u00fdsa e\u00f0li \u00feessarar l\u00e6rd\u00f3msgreinar.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Fyrir utan sk\u00fdringu Magn\u00fasar \u00e1 nafngiftinni samblandsfr\u00e6\u00f0i,<\/em> kemur fram \u00ed tilvitnuninni a\u00f0 hann notar \u00fdmist undirst\u00f6\u00f0uefni<\/em> e\u00f0a upprunaefni<\/em> fyrir \u00fea\u00f0 sem vi\u00f0 \u00ed dag k\u00f6llum frumefni<\/a>. \u00c1 \u00f6\u00f0rum sta\u00f0 notar hann or\u00f0i\u00f0 upprunavera<\/em> \u00ed \u00feessari merkingu. \u00cd greininni er ekki a\u00f0eins frumefni\u00f0 j\u00e1rn til umfj\u00f6llunar, heldur koma m\u00f6rg \u00f6nnur vi\u00f0 s\u00f6gu, til d\u00e6mis s\u00fdruefni (oxygene), bl\u00fd, brennusteinn, kolefni (carbonique),\u00a0 vatnsefni (hydrogene), spj\u00f3taglans (antimonium), kvikasilfur, arsenik, plat\u00edna, gull, silfur, kopar, tin og kobolt. (\u00cd \u00feessu sambandi m\u00e1 benda \u00e1 vefs\u00ed\u00f0u \u00fear sem au\u00f0veldlega m\u00e1 sj\u00e1, hva\u00f0a frumefni voru \u00feekkt<\/a> \u00e1 d\u00f6gum Magn\u00fasar.)<\/p>\n

Vi\u00f0 samningu greinarinnar Um j\u00e1rn og st\u00e1l<\/em> vir\u00f0ist Magn\u00fas hafa notast vi\u00f0 \u00fdmsar erlendar handb\u00e6kur. \u00dear \u00e1 me\u00f0al var \u00feriggja binda verk, Chemisk Haandbog<\/em>, eftir danska ap\u00f3tekarann og efnafr\u00e6\u00f0inginn Nicolai Tychsen<\/a>. Vita\u00f0 er a\u00f0 rit \u00feetta var til \u00ed nokkrum eint\u00f6kum h\u00e9r \u00e1 landi \u00e1 s\u00ednum t\u00edma, \u00fev\u00ed \u00e1ri\u00f0 1790 sendi ap\u00f3tekarinn hinga\u00f0 10 eint\u00f6k \u00e1 d\u00f6nsku og eitt \u00e1 \u00fe\u00fdsku, sem \u00f6ll voru \u00e6tlu\u00f0 H\u00f3lask\u00f3la til eignar.<\/p>\n

Segja m\u00e1 a\u00f0 ranns\u00f3knir \u00e1 efnafr\u00e6\u00f0ilegum eiginleikum lofttegunda<\/a> hafi ekki hafist fyrir alv\u00f6ru fyrr en vel var li\u00f0i\u00f0 \u00e1 \u00e1tj\u00e1ndu \u00f6ldina. Me\u00f0 vaxandi t\u00e6kni fundust margar n\u00fdjar tegundir og um \u00fe\u00e6r skapa\u00f0ist fr\u00e6\u00f0ileg umr\u00e6\u00f0a \u00fear sem eldefni\u00f0<\/a> (flogiston) kom me\u00f0al annars vi\u00f0 s\u00f6gu. \u00dea\u00f0 var \u00fe\u00f3 ekki fyrr en um mi\u00f0jan n\u00edunda \u00e1ratuginn, sem Lavoisier<\/a> gekk af eldefninu dau\u00f0u og lag\u00f0i grunninn a\u00f0 hinni n\u00fdju fr\u00f6nsku efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Hinn fr\u00f3\u00f0legi og skemmtilegi pistill Magn\u00fasar Stephensen um Helstu lofttegundir<\/em> birtist \u00ed \u00feremur hlutum \u00ed Klausturp\u00f3stinum \u00e1ri\u00f0 1819. \u00cd fyrsta hlutanum<\/a> fjallar hann um s\u00farefnis- e\u00f0a l\u00edfsloft (gas oxygenii) og k\u00f6fnunar- e\u00f0a dau\u00f0aloft (gas azoticum). \u00cd mi\u00f0hlutanum<\/a> er r\u00e6tt um kolas\u00fdruloft (gas acidum carbogenii), vatnsefnisloft (gas hydrogenii) og brennusteins-kynja\u00f0 vatnsefnisloft (hydrothion gas). Loks tekur \u00feri\u00f0ji og s\u00ed\u00f0asti hlutinn<\/a> fyrir l\u00fdsandi vatnsefnisloft (gas phosphori hydrogenium) og yfirs\u00fdrt matarsalts\u00fdruloft (gas muriatico oxygenium). Pistlinum l\u00fdkur svo \u00e1 eftirfarandi fr\u00f3\u00f0eiksmola:<\/p>\n

Merkilegt er \u00fea\u00f0 samt um allar lofttegundir, a\u00f0 s\u00e9 \u00feeim, hver helst sem er, innsp\u00fdtt \u00ed manna e\u00f0a d\u00fdra bl\u00f3\u00f0\u00e6\u00f0ar, eins og n\u00fa er me\u00f0 heppni teki\u00f0 a\u00f0 t\u00edskast me\u00f0 l\u00e6knisme\u00f0\u00f6l \u00fdmisleg, ver\u00f0a \u00fe\u00e6r \u00f6llum \u00feeim a\u00f0 br\u00e1\u00f0um bana.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

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Skopmynd af enska efnafr\u00e6\u00f0ingnum Humphry Davy s\u00fdna \u00e1hrif hl\u00e1turgass \u00e1 opinberum fyrirlestri \u00ed London \u00e1ri\u00f0 1800. \u00cd fyrsta hluta pistils s\u00edns segir Magn\u00fas, a\u00f0 \u201emerkileg mj\u00f6g [s\u00e9 \u00feessi] sambl\u00f6ndun l\u00edfs- og dau\u00f0alofts […], sem olla\u00f0 hafa nokkrum ferlegustu gle\u00f0i og \u00f3l\u00fdsanlegri \u00e1n\u00e6gjan, svo vart hafa r\u00e1\u00f0i\u00f0 s\u00e9r; en \u00fe\u00f3 \u00feeir hafi hoppa\u00f0 upp og \u00ed frammi haft mestu gle\u00f0il\u00e1ta umbrot, \u00fe\u00f3 ekki or\u00f0i\u00f0 m\u00e1ttdregnir eftir\u00e1\u201c.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Eldgos og umbyltingar<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

Magn\u00fas Stephensen lauk \u00f6\u00f0ru l\u00e6rd\u00f3mspr\u00f3fi (examen philosophicum) vi\u00f0 Hafnarh\u00e1sk\u00f3la me\u00f0 miklum gl\u00e6sibrag \u00ed j\u00fal\u00ed 1782 og h\u00f3f sk\u00f6mmu s\u00ed\u00f0ar lagan\u00e1m. Ekki lei\u00f0 \u00fe\u00f3 nema r\u00famt \u00e1r \u00fear til hann,\u00a0\u00fer\u00e1tt fyrir ungan aldur og enga fyrri reynslu af v\u00edsindaranns\u00f3knum, var sendur til \u00cdslands til a\u00f0 fylgjast me\u00f0 Skaft\u00e1reldum<\/a>. Um athuganir s\u00ednar skrifa\u00f0i hann flj\u00f3tlega merka sk\u00fdrslu, Kort Beskrivelse over den nye Vulcans Ildsprudning i Vester-Skaptefields-Syssel paa Island i Aaret 1783<\/a>, sem kom \u00fat \u00ed Kaupmannah\u00f6fn 1785.\u00a0 H\u00e9r ver\u00f0ur ekki fjalla\u00f0 n\u00e1nar um efni sk\u00fdrslunnar, heldur v\u00edsa\u00f0 \u00ed ums\u00f6gn J\u00f3ns J\u00f3nssonar jar\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0ings \u00ed grein<\/a> fr\u00e1 1964.<\/p>\n

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Skaft\u00e1reldar<\/em>. M\u00e1lverk eftir listamanninn \u00der\u00e1nd \u00de\u00f3rarinsson fr\u00e1 2010.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Magn\u00fas minntist oft \u00e1 eldgos \u00ed fr\u00e6\u00f0sluritum s\u00ednum og ger\u00f0i lesendum grein fyrir n\u00fdjustu hugmyndum um orsakir \u00feeirra. Sk\u00f6mmu eftir a\u00f0 Eyjafjallaj\u00f6kull gaus \u00e1ri\u00f0 1821 birti hann fr\u00e9tina Eldgos eystra<\/a> \u00ed Klausturp\u00f3stinum <\/em>og strax \u00fear \u00e1 eftir fr\u00e6\u00f0slugreinina Um eldgj\u00f3sandi fj\u00f6ll<\/a>, sem eflaust hefur vaki\u00f0 athygli lesenda. \u00dear gerir hann me\u00f0al annars tilraun til a\u00f0 beita \u00feekkingu sinni \u00ed efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i og e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i til sk\u00fdringa \u00e1 \u00fdmsum fyrirb\u00e6rum tengdum eldgosum.<\/p>\n

\u00cd greininni Vorum s\u00f3lheimum<\/a><\/em> fr\u00e1 1797 r\u00e6\u00f0ir Magn\u00fas stuttlega hugmyndir Williams Whiston<\/a> um \u00fdmis konar hamfarir af v\u00f6ldum halastjarna. Whiston, sem var eftirma\u00f0ur Newtons \u00e1 L\u00fakasarst\u00f3lnum<\/a> \u00ed Cambridge, taldi me\u00f0al annars a\u00f0 halastjarnan 1680<\/a> hef\u00f0i \u00e1 s\u00ednum t\u00edma valdi\u00f0 syndafl\u00f3\u00f0inu og Newton var s\u00f6mu sko\u00f0unar. Magn\u00fas nefnir einnig \u00ed greininni, a\u00f0 steingervingar og a\u00f0rar leifar bendi hugsanlega til \u00feess a\u00f0<\/p>\n

j\u00f6r\u00f0in \u00fe\u00e1 er M\u00f3sis fr\u00e1saga byrjar, hafi ei fyrst veri\u00f0 gj\u00f6r\u00f0 af engu, heldur m\u00e1ske \u00ed margar aldir veri\u00f0 bygg\u00f0ur veraldar hn\u00f6ttur, en ni\u00f0urbrotinn, umturna\u00f0ur og \u00fe\u00e1 legi\u00f0 \u00ed s\u00ednu myrkri og vatni.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

\u00deetta efni tekur Magn\u00fas aftur til sko\u00f0unar \u00ed pistlinum G\u00e1tur um aldur og umbyltingu vorrar jar\u00f0ar<\/em>, sem birtist \u00ed tveimur hlutum \u00ed Klausturp\u00f3stinum<\/em> \u00e1ri\u00f0 1824. Mestur hluti pistilsins fjallar um steingervinga og a\u00f0rar leifar, fundarsta\u00f0i \u00feeirra og einkenni.<\/p>\n

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\u00c1ri\u00f0 1764 fannst risavaxin steinger\u00f0 hausk\u00fapa af \u00fatdau\u00f0u sj\u00e1vard\u00fdri (mosasaurus<\/a>) n\u00e1l\u00e6gt Maastricht \u00ed Hollandi, sta\u00f0 sem Magn\u00fas nefnir \u00ed seinni hluta pistilsins fr\u00e1 1824 og segir a\u00f0 \u00fear s\u00e9 \u201efullt af steindum kr\u00f3k\u00f3d\u00edlum og margbreyttum skri\u00f0kvikindum\u201c.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

\u00cd upphafi fyrri hluta<\/a> er minnt \u00e1 \u00fea\u00f0, a\u00f0 samkv\u00e6mt almanakinu s\u00e9u n\u00fa li\u00f0in 5791 \u00e1r fr\u00e1 sk\u00f6pun veraldar. \u00ddmsir n\u00e1tt\u00faruspekingar telji \u00fe\u00f3 sennilegt a\u00f0 j\u00f6r\u00f0in s\u00e9 til muna eldri. (H\u00e9r m\u00e1 skj\u00f3ta inn, a\u00f0 talan 5791 er komin fr\u00e1 Longomontanusi<\/a>. Aldur heimsins samkv\u00e6mt \u00fatreikningum hans var birtur \u00e1rlega \u00ed d\u00f6nskum alman\u00f6kum og \u00feegar \u00edslenska almanaki\u00f0<\/a> kom til s\u00f6gunnar, 1837, var hermt eftir \u00feessu. Si\u00f0urinn var aflag\u00f0ur \u00ed Danaveldi \u00e1ri\u00f0 1911.)<\/p>\n

Magn\u00fas bendir \u00e1 og hefur eftir Albrecht von Haller<\/a> og fleirum, a\u00f0 for\u00f0ast megi \u00feetta misr\u00e6mi s\u00e9 gert r\u00e1\u00f0 fyrir a\u00f0 M\u00f3ses, \u00ed sinni fyrstu b\u00f3k, hafi mi\u00f0a\u00f0 upphafi\u00f0 vi\u00f0 sk\u00f6pun Adams og Evu. Gu\u00f0 g\u00e6ti \u00fev\u00ed hafa skapa\u00f0 j\u00f6r\u00f0ina og a\u00f0ra himinhnetti miklu fyrr og steingervingarnir s\u00e9u leifar lifandi vera, sem lif\u00f0u fyrir langa l\u00f6ngu en f\u00f3rust \u00ed \u201ealgj\u00f6rri ey\u00f0ileggingu og umturnunum\u201c. \u00dea\u00f0 hafi aftur leitt til \u00feess a\u00f0 j\u00f6r\u00f0in hafi \u201everi\u00f0 ey\u00f0i og t\u00f3m og hulin myrku hafi\u201c \u00feegar kom a\u00f0 sk\u00f6pun Adams. A\u00f0 \u00f6\u00f0ru leyti fylgir Magn\u00fas \u00ed meginatri\u00f0um kenningum nept\u00fanista<\/a> um \u00fer\u00f3unars\u00f6guna, nema kannski undir lok seinni hluta pistilsins<\/a>, \u00fear sem hann r\u00e9tt nefnir \u00fdmsar hugmyndir um sk\u00f6pun jar\u00f0ar og innri ger\u00f0 hnattarins.<\/p>\n

Ekki lei\u00f0 nema r\u00famur \u00e1ratugur \u00fear til n\u00e6sta \u00edslenska ritsm\u00ed\u00f0in birtist um \u00feetta \u00e1hugaver\u00f0a efni. \u00dea\u00f0 var hin merka grein J\u00f3nasar Hallgr\u00edmssonar, Um e\u00f0li og uppruna jar\u00f0arinnar.<\/a><\/p>\n

Rafkrafturinn<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

Eins og flestir a\u00f0rir uppl\u00fdsingarmenn haf\u00f0i Magn\u00fas Stephensen verulegan \u00e1huga \u00e1 rafmagni og \u00f6llu sem \u00fev\u00ed tengdist. Kennari hans, Kratzenstein, var vel \u00feekktur \u00ed Evr\u00f3pu fyrir ranns\u00f3knir s\u00ednar \u00e1 \u00feessu svi\u00f0i og fjalla\u00f0i \u00e1vallt \u00edtarlega um rafmagn \u00ed kennslunni. \u00cd b\u00f3kum hans, Nollets, Musschenbroeks og fleiri, sem Magn\u00fas las \u00e1 n\u00e1ms\u00e1runum \u00ed H\u00f6fn og s\u00ed\u00f0ar, var l\u00f6g\u00f0 mikil \u00e1hersla \u00e1 \u00feetta merka fyrirb\u00e6ri, enda var \u00fea\u00f0 eitt helsta vi\u00f0fangsefni e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0inga allt fr\u00e1 seinni hluta \u00e1tj\u00e1ndu aldar og fram \u00e1 tuttugustu \u00f6ld (sj\u00e1 n\u00e1nar h\u00e9r<\/a>).<\/p>\n

\u00cd greininni Um meteora<\/a><\/em> fr\u00e1 1783 var\u00f0 Magn\u00fas fyrstur \u00cdslendinga til a\u00f0 skrifa um rafmagn \u00e1 m\u00f3\u00f0urm\u00e1linu. \u00dear segir \u00e1 bls. 163:<\/p>\n

N\u00e1tt\u00faruspekingar hafa sm\u00ed\u00f0a\u00f0 s\u00e9r or\u00f0i\u00f0 electricitas, af \u00fev\u00ed gr\u00edska electron e\u00f0a latneska electrum, rafur; vegna \u00feess \u00feeir a\u00f0g\u00e6ttu fyrst \u00e1 rafinum \u00feennan kraft, er \u00fdmsir hlutir hafa. Me\u00f0 sama r\u00e9tti voga \u00e9g \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 sm\u00ed\u00f0a n\u00fdtt or\u00f0 yfir electricitatem, og nefna rafkraft, og tillagsor\u00f0 (adjectivum) \u00fear af rafkrafta\u00f0ur (electricus).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Og \u00e1 bls. 170 segir:<\/p>\n

Rafkrafturinn (electricitas) er s\u00fa n\u00e1tt\u00fara, sem \u00fdmsir hlutir f\u00e1, til a\u00f0 draga a\u00f0 s\u00e9r l\u00e9tta hluti, hrinda \u00feeim burt aftur, og gefa fr\u00e1 s\u00e9r eld og blossa; \u00fea\u00f0 ske\u00f0ur einkum, ef rafkrafta\u00f0ir hlutir n\u00faast fast; en rafkrafta\u00f0ir eru allir hlutir brennisteins-, kvo\u00f0u- e\u00f0a harpis- og gler-tegundar, svo sem bik, lakk, gler, brennisteinn, rafur, harpis, alskonar h\u00e1r, silki o. s. fl. Af \u00feessu koma eldneistar \u00feeir, er sj\u00e1st \u00ed myrkrinu, ef ma\u00f0ur str\u00fdkur hvolpa e\u00f0a ketti \u00f3tt og t\u00edtt \u00f6fugt, e\u00f0a upp \u00e1 m\u00f3ti h\u00e1rfarinu, og annar kemur \u00fe\u00e1 a\u00f0, og snertir vi\u00f0 \u00feeim.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Rafkraftur Magn\u00fasar er \u00fea\u00f0 sem \u00ed dag er kalla\u00f0 st\u00f6\u00f0urafmagn<\/a> og vi\u00f0 segjum a\u00f0 hlutur s\u00e9 rafhla\u00f0inn<\/a> frekar en rafkrafta\u00f0ur. Til gamans m\u00e1 einnig minna \u00e1, a\u00f0 \u00ed E\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/em> Fischers, sem er full af n\u00fdyr\u00f0um, er tala\u00f0 um rafurmagn og rafurmagna\u00f0a hluti \u00ed \u00feessu sambandi.<\/p>\n

\u00dea\u00f0 er athyglisvert, a\u00f0 Magn\u00fas Stephensen skrifa\u00f0i aldrei s\u00e9rstaka fr\u00e6\u00f0slugrein um rafmagn fyrir \u00edslenska lesendur. \u00cd sta\u00f0inn m\u00e1 finna \u00fdmsa mola um \u00feetta \u00e1hugam\u00e1l \u00e1 v\u00ed\u00f0 og dreif \u00ed verkum hans. Sem d\u00e6mi m\u00e1 nefna, a\u00f0 \u00ed ritger\u00f0inni Um meteora <\/em>er fjalla\u00f0 um rafmagn \u00ed tengslum vi\u00f0 nor\u00f0urlj\u00f3s (bls. 163), hr\u00e6varelda og leiftur (bls. 169-70), \u00ferumur og eldingar (bls. 171-74) og einnig eldingavarann, uppfinningu Benjam\u00edns Franklin<\/a> fr\u00e1 1749 (bls. 174-78).<\/p>\n

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Ur\u00f0arm\u00e1ni<\/em> e\u00f0a hnattelding<\/em>. \u201ePr\u00f3fessor Richmann<\/a> \u00ed P\u00e9tursborg [sem var samstarfsma\u00f0ur Kratzensteins \u00fear] d\u00f3 af \u00feesskonar eldhnetti \u00feann 6. \u00e1g\u00fast 1753, er hann vildi vita hvort lofti\u00f0 v\u00e6ri rafkrafta\u00f0 \u00ed skrugguve\u00f0rum.\u201c \u00dar greininni Um meteora<\/em>, bls. 174.<\/figcaption><\/figure>Eldingavarinn sl\u00f3 flj\u00f3tt \u00ed gegn og var nota\u00f0ur \u00ed \u00fdmsum\u00a0 \u00fatg\u00e1fum. Eitt d\u00e6mi er hin handh\u00e6ga skruggusk\u00fdla, sem var mj\u00f6g \u00ed t\u00edsku \u00ed Evr\u00f3pu \u00e1 n\u00e1ms\u00e1rum Magn\u00fasar \u00ed Kaupmnnah\u00f6fn (sj\u00e1 mynd h\u00e9r fyrir ne\u00f0an).<\/p>\n
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\u201e\u00dati m\u00e1 hver s\u00e1 \u00f3h\u00e6tt vera, sem ber yfir s\u00e9r regnsk\u00fdlu (parapluye) af silki, ef upp af henni stendur anna\u00f0hvort engin st\u00f6ng, e\u00f0a h\u00fan s\u00e9 vel hvesst a\u00f0 ofan, og \u00fear l\u00edka m\u00e1lmslegin; eftst fr\u00e1 regnsk\u00fdlunni, e\u00f0a st\u00f6nginni, ef h\u00fan er \u00e1, skal ganga l\u00edtil hlekkjafesti af l\u00e1t\u00fani e\u00f0a j\u00e1rni, sem s\u00e9 svo l\u00f6ng, a\u00f0 h\u00fan dragst me\u00f0 j\u00f6r\u00f0u, er ma\u00f0ur ber yfir s\u00e9r regnsk\u00fdluna; eldingin hleypur \u00fe\u00e1 efst \u00e1 st\u00f6ngina, og eftir festinni \u00ed j\u00f6r\u00f0 ni\u00f0ur, \u00e1n \u00feess a\u00f0 granda hi\u00f0 minsta. Silki\u00f0 er af n\u00e1tt\u00faru sinni rafkrafta\u00f0 (idio-electricum) og \u00fev\u00ed getur eldingin ekki \u00ed \u00fev\u00ed kveikt. Me\u00f0 \u00feessu m\u00f3ti getur regnsk\u00fdlan undir eins veri\u00f0 skruggusk\u00fdla (para-foudres).\u201c \u00dar greininni Um meteora<\/em>, bls. 175. Myndin er fr\u00e1 mi\u00f0ri 19. \u00f6ld.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Langur t\u00edmi lei\u00f0 fr\u00e1 \u00fatkomu greinarinnar Um meteora<\/em> og \u00fear til Magn\u00fas fjalla\u00f0i n\u00e6st um rafmagn \u00ed verkum s\u00ednum, e\u00f0a um fj\u00f6rut\u00edu \u00e1r. Sennilega stafa\u00f0i \u00fea\u00f0 fyrst og fremst af t\u00edmaskorti, en einnig hefur hann skort g\u00f3\u00f0ar heimildir og \u00feurft a\u00f0 sty\u00f0jast vi\u00f0 misn\u00e1kv\u00e6mar fr\u00e1sagnir \u00ed erlendum bl\u00f6\u00f0um. Ekki skorti \u00fe\u00f3 t\u00ed\u00f0indin, \u00fev\u00ed \u00e1 \u00feessum \u00e1rum vann Luigi Galvani<\/a> a\u00f0 ranns\u00f3knum s\u00ednum \u00e1 d\u00fdrarafmagni<\/a> og Alessandro Volta<\/a> fann \u00ed kj\u00f6lfari\u00f0 upp rafhl\u00f6\u00f0una, hinn svokalla\u00f0a voltast\u00f3lpa<\/a>. Hann ger\u00f0i \u00fea\u00f0 m\u00f6gulegt \u00ed fyrsta sinn a\u00f0 framkalla st\u00f6\u00f0ugan rafstraum. \u00c1ri\u00f0 1820 uppg\u00f6tva\u00f0i H. C. \u00d8rsted<\/a> svo segul\u00e1hrif sl\u00edks straums<\/a>. \u00dea\u00f0 ver\u00f0ur a\u00f0 teljast merkasta tilraunani\u00f0ursta\u00f0a \u00ed e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i, sem nokkurn t\u00edmann hefur s\u00e9st \u00e1 Nor\u00f0url\u00f6ndum.<\/p>\n

\u00c1ri\u00f0 1823 segir Magn\u00fas \u00ed Klausturp\u00f3stinum (bls. 14):<\/p>\n

Margar og yfri\u00f0 markver\u00f0ar eru vorrar aldar l\u00e6rd\u00f3msmanna uppg\u00f6tvanir um e\u00f0li og verkanir \u00feeirra tveggja miklu n\u00e1tt\u00farukrafta, sem v\u00e9r nefnum segulsteins- og rafkraft (Magnetismus og Electricitas). […]<\/em> V\u00e6ri \u00e9g annars f\u00e6r um \u00fea\u00f0, m\u00e6tti \u00e9g samt rita st\u00f3ra b\u00f3k til a\u00f0 gj\u00f6ra \u00feau efni skiljanleg l\u00edtt- e\u00f0ur \u00f3l\u00e6r\u00f0um lesurum m\u00ednum.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Og 1825 heldur hann \u00e1fram (bls. 74):<\/p>\n

Eins og flest a\u00f0 n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsindum l\u00fatandi, hvar um engin uppfr\u00e6\u00f0ing b\u00fd\u00f0st \u00ed voru landi, e\u00f0a vir\u00f0ist gefin ver\u00f0a skiljanleg \u00e1n st\u00f3rra konstar verkf\u00e6ra og afm\u00e1lana, er flestum landa minna, nema \u00fatl\u00e6r\u00f0um vi\u00f0 h\u00e1sk\u00f3la erlendis, a\u00f0 mestu \u00f3kunnug og \u00f3skiljanleg s\u00fa merkilega uppg\u00f6tvun n\u00fdrrar rafkraftategundar, sem n\u00fa nefnist galvanismus, eftir uppfinnara hennar Galvani \u00e1 Vallandi, sem dey\u00f0i 1798, en uppg\u00f6tva\u00f0i og augl\u00fdsti \u00feessa rafkraftar tegund 1791, og nefndi hana \u00fe\u00e1 d\u00fdralegan rafkraft. Sk\u00f6mmu seinna umb\u00e6tti og vi\u00f0j\u00f3k st\u00f3rum l\u00e6rimeistari \u00ed n\u00e1tt\u00faruv\u00edsindum vi\u00f0 Pav\u00edu h\u00e1sk\u00f3la \u00e1 Vallandi a\u00f0 nafni Volta, hins vitringsins n\u00fdu uppg\u00f6tvun, sem \u00fe\u00f3 ber enn Galvans nafn. […]\u00a0<\/em> H\u00e9r a\u00f0 gj\u00f6ra \u00f6ldungis \u00f3fr\u00f3\u00f0um e\u00f0li \u00feessa Galvans kraftar [rafstraums]<\/em> skiljanlegt, leyfir ekki r\u00fam m\u00edns Klausturp\u00f3sts, m\u00e1ski ekki heldur m\u00edn litla \u00feekking \u00feess, \u00e1n verkf\u00e6ra og opinbers, verklegs pr\u00f3fs.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

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Mynd \u00far b\u00e6klingi Galvanis<\/a> fr\u00e1 1791 um ranns\u00f3knir hans \u00e1 d\u00fdrarafmagni. Froskalappir koma \u00fear mj\u00f6g vi\u00f0 s\u00f6gu.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

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Volta s\u00fdnir Nap\u00f3leon st\u00f3lpa sinn \u00e1ri\u00f0 1801. \u00cd Klausturp\u00f3stinum<\/em> segir um voltast\u00f3lpann \u00e1ri\u00f0 1825 (bls.75):\u00a0\u201eGalvans rafkraftur [rafstraumur] vekst og lei\u00f0ist au\u00f0sj\u00e1anlegast, s\u00e9 st\u00f3lpi hla\u00f0inn upp einn e\u00f0a fleiri af \u00feunnum sl\u00e9ttum, jafnst\u00f3rum t\u00f6flum af \u00f3l\u00edkum m\u00e1lmum, einkum sinks e\u00f0ur prinsm\u00e1lmi [l\u00e1t\u00fani] og silfri gj\u00f6r\u00f0um, e\u00f0a kopar e\u00f0a bl\u00fdi, \u00fe\u00e1 hitt skortir og m\u00e1lmar \u00feessir \u00e6 lag\u00f0ir \u00ed s\u00f6mu r\u00f6\u00f0, en t\u00f6flurnar a\u00f0skildar jafnan me\u00f0 vi\u00f0l\u00edka st\u00f3rum \u00far kl\u00e6\u00f0i e\u00f0a saml\u00edmdum pappa \u00f6llum vel v\u00e6ttum \u00ed s\u00f6ltu vatni e\u00f0a s\u00farbl\u00f6ndu, \u00e1\u00f0ur en samhla\u00f0nar ver\u00f0i; gefur st\u00f3lpi s\u00e1, ef snertur er me\u00f0 votum h\u00f6ndum af s\u00f6ltu vatni e\u00f0a s\u00farbl\u00f6ndu efst og ne\u00f0st vi\u00f0 \u00f3l\u00edkra m\u00e1lma t\u00f6flur, eldneista, hristir og stingur \u00ed mann, og haldi hann \u00e1 m\u00e1lmst\u00f6ngum og snerti me\u00f0 \u00feeim \u00ed einu upp og ni\u00f0ur enda st\u00f3lpans, hvar \u00f3l\u00edkar m\u00e1lmt\u00f6flur eru fyrir, hristast handleggir hans upp a\u00f0 \u00f6xlum vi\u00f0 flogin og ver\u00f0a ekki st\u00f6\u00f0va\u00f0ir. Haldi ma\u00f0ur m\u00e1lmteini a\u00f0 \u00f6\u00f0rum enda st\u00f3lpans og hinum vi\u00f0 h\u00f6fu\u00f0 s\u00e9r, en snerti hinn me\u00f0 votri hendi, breg\u00f0ur glampa fyrir augun, en s\u00farum smekki \u00e1 tungu manns.\u201c<\/figcaption><\/figure>Eins og margir samt\u00edmamenn, vir\u00f0ist Magn\u00fas hafa haft \u00e1huga \u00e1 \u00e1hrifum rafmagns \u00e1 mannsl\u00edkanann, einkum til heilsub\u00f3ar. \u00cd \u00fev\u00ed sambandi m\u00e1 nefna a\u00f0 fyrrum kennari hans, Kratzenstein, var einn helsti s\u00e9rfr\u00e6\u00f0ingur Evr\u00f3pu \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed svi\u00f0i \u00e1 s\u00ednum t\u00edma.<\/p>\n

Tilraunir til endurl\u00edfga menn me\u00f0 raflosti eftir drukknun, k\u00f6fnun e\u00f0a hengingu vir\u00f0ist einnig hafa vaki\u00f0 \u00e1huga Magn\u00fasar.<\/p>\n

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Mynd af hinni alr\u00e6mdu tilraun Andrews Ure<\/a> \u00e1ri\u00f0 1818. Um hana segir Magn\u00fas m.a. \u00ed Klausturp\u00f3stinum<\/em> 1825 (bls. 76-77): \u201eS\u00e1 n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00f3\u00f0i ma\u00f0ur Ure \u00ed Skotlandi [reyndi] margv\u00edslega Galvans rafkraft sterkan af 270 taflna p\u00f6rum vi\u00f0 mann hengdan fyrir 1 klukkustundu og f\u00e9kk allur s\u00e1 dau\u00f0i \u00fear vi\u00f0 megnar rykkingar; anna\u00f0 hn\u00e9\u00f0 var\u00f0 me\u00f0 afli kreppt, en r\u00e9ttist vi\u00f0 Galvans kraftar sl\u00f6gin me\u00f0 \u00fev\u00edl\u00edku afli, a\u00f0 s\u00e1 sem h\u00e9lt \u00fev\u00ed krepptu f\u00f3r \u00fev\u00ed n\u00e6r flatur; andarder\u00e1ttur h\u00f3fst \u00e1 n\u00fd, en \u00feungur; brj\u00f3st og kvi\u00f0ur gengu \u00fat og inn; andliti\u00f0 grettist sundur og saman; kroppurinn t\u00f3k a\u00f0 fara \u00e1 br\u00f6lt, svo fj\u00f6ldi n\u00e1l\u00e6gra var\u00f0 skelka\u00f0ur og ruddist \u00fat; yfir einn lei\u00f0, a\u00f0rir ur\u00f0u \u00e6rir, en sumir skellihl\u00f3u. Hendinni var\u00f0 me\u00f0 afli har\u00f0krepptri haldi\u00f0, en vi\u00f0 Galvans kraftar slagi\u00f0 r\u00e9ttist h\u00fan upp. Hjartans og l\u00edf\u00e6\u00f0ar sl\u00e1ttinn vanta\u00f0i, en allt vir\u00f0ist sanna, a\u00f0 rafkraftur \u00f6rvar l\u00edfs merki \u00f6ll og r\u00e6\u00f0ur fyrir verkunum v\u00f6\u00f0va kerfsins.\u201c A\u00f0ger\u00f0ir af \u00feessu tagi munu hafa veri\u00f0 ein helsta \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0a \u00feess a\u00f0 Mary Shelley<\/a> samdi s\u00f6guna um Frankenstein,<\/a> sem kom \u00fat 1818. Var fyrirmyndin a\u00f0 honum kannski Kratzenstein<\/a>?<\/figcaption><\/figure>Einhverra hluta vegna fer Magn\u00fas Stephensen ekki m\u00f6rgum or\u00f0um um hina merku uppg\u00f6tvun \u00d8rsteds \u00e1ri\u00f0 1820 \u00e1 segul\u00e1hrifum rafstraums. Eftir \u00fev\u00ed sem \u00e9g best f\u00e6 s\u00e9\u00f0, er h\u00fan a\u00f0eins nefnd \u00e1 einum sta\u00f0 \u00ed Klausturp\u00f3stinum<\/em>, en \u00fear segir \u00e1 s\u00ed\u00f0u 15 til 16, \u00e1ri\u00f0 1823:<\/p>\n

Vor nafnfr\u00e6gi n\u00e1tt\u00faruspekingur, pr\u00f3fessor og riddari \u00d8rsted \u00ed Kaupmannah\u00f6fn uppfann og sanna\u00f0i me\u00f0 \u00f6ldungis \u00f3yggjandi r\u00f6ksemdum, Electro-Magnetismum, e\u00f0ur same\u00f0li raf- og segulsteins-kraftanna. […]<\/em> Fyrir \u00feessa merkilegu l\u00e6rd\u00f3ms uppg\u00f6tvun, m\u00f3\u00f0ur til margra seinni mikilv\u00e6gra, s\u00e6mdi Par\u00edsarsta\u00f0ar konunglegur v\u00edsindah\u00e1sk\u00f3li Hr. \u00d8rsted d\u00fdr\u00f0legum hei\u00f0ursskenki, e\u00f0ur 2\u00bc punds \u00feungum minnispeningi \u00far f\u00ednasta gulli […]<\/em> er hann n\u00fa \u00feanga\u00f0 farinn til a\u00f0 me\u00f0taka hann \u00ed h\u00e1t\u00ed\u00f0legri samkomu, en fer \u00fea\u00f0an til Lund\u00fanaborgar, hvar m\u00e6lt er a\u00f0 konunglegt V\u00edsindaf\u00e9lag \u00e6tli honum annan, m\u00e1ske enn st\u00e6rri til ver\u00f0launa.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

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Myndin s\u00fdnir endurger\u00f0a uppstillingu fyrir tilraun \u00d8rsteds. Sto\u00f0irnar sitt hvoru megin halda uppi koparv\u00edrnum, sem f\u00e6r straum fr\u00e1 rafhl\u00f6\u00f0unni (voltast\u00f3lpanum) ne\u00f0st \u00e1 myndinni.\u00a0 \u00c1ttavitinn undir v\u00edrnum m\u00e6lir segul\u00e1hrif straumsins. Sj\u00e1 n\u00e1nar h\u00e9r<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Segul\u00e1hrifum rafstraums var fyrst l\u00fdst \u00e1 \u00edslensku \u00ed E\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/em> Fischers \u00e1ri\u00f0 1852 (bls. 402-405). \u00cd \u00feessu sambandi m\u00e1 einnig minna \u00e1, a\u00f0 n\u00e1tt\u00farufr\u00e6\u00f0i (les e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i og efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i) var ekki kennd formlega h\u00e9r \u00e1 landi fyrr en L\u00e6r\u00f0i sk\u00f3linn<\/a> t\u00f3k til starfa \u00ed Reykjav\u00edk hausti\u00f0 1846. Fyrsta b\u00f3kin, sem Bj\u00f6rn Gunnlaugsson<\/a> nota\u00f0i \u00ed \u00feeirri kennslu var\u00a0 Naturl\u00e6rens mechaniske Deel<\/a> eftir \u00d8rsted (sj\u00e1 einnig \u00feessa grein<\/a> fr\u00e1 2001).<\/p>\n

_<\/p>\n

V\u00f0b\u00f3t<\/strong> (11. jan\u00faar 2018): Fyrir tilviljun rakst \u00e9g n\u00fdlega \u00e1 umfj\u00f6llun um uppg\u00f6tvun \u00d8rsteds<\/a> \u00ed \u00cdslenskum sagnabl\u00f6\u00f0um<\/em> 1820-21 (bls. 36-38).<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Hin \u00e1hrifamikli uppl\u00fdsingarma\u00f0ur, b\u00f3ka\u00fatgefandi og emb\u00e6ttisma\u00f0ur, Magn\u00fas Stephensen (1762-1833), var einn \u00feeirra \u00f6rf\u00e1u \u00cdslendinga sem \u00e1 \u00e1ratugunum \u00ed kringum 1800 kynntu s\u00e9r n\u00e1tt\u00farv\u00edsindi s\u00e9rstaklega, b\u00e6\u00f0i \u00e1 n\u00e1ms\u00e1runum \u00ed\u00a0 Kaupmannah\u00f6fn og s\u00ed\u00f0ar. Hann haf\u00f0i \u00e1 \u00feeim brennandi \u00e1huga og \u00ed anda uppl\u00fdsingarinnar reyndi hann eftir megni a\u00f0 gefa l\u00f6ndum s\u00ednum sm\u00e1 inns\u00fdn \u00ed undraheim v\u00edsindanna me\u00f0 […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[3,4,5,9],"tags":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1958"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=1958"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1958\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=1958"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=1958"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=1958"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}