{"id":4669,"date":"2018-06-24T20:55:14","date_gmt":"2018-06-24T20:55:14","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/uni.hi.is\/einar\/?p=4669"},"modified":"2018-06-24T20:55:14","modified_gmt":"2018-06-24T20:55:14","slug":"halastjarnan-mikla-arid-1858-maelingar-og-hughrif-i-upphafi-nyrra-tima-i-stjornufraedi","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/?p=4669","title":{"rendered":"Halastjarnan mikla \u00e1ri\u00f0 1858 – M\u00e6lingar og hughrif \u00ed upphafi n\u00fdrra t\u00edma \u00ed stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i"},"content":{"rendered":"

Um \u00feessar mundir (j\u00fan\u00ed 2018) eru li\u00f0in 160 \u00e1r fr\u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed fyrst s\u00e1st glitta \u00ed l\u00edtinn hno\u00f0ra \u00e1 stj\u00f6rnuhimninum \u00ed gegnum sj\u00f3nauka \u00ed Fl\u00f3rens \u00e1 \u00cdtal\u00edu. \u00c1 n\u00e6stu m\u00e1nu\u00f0um \u00e1tti hno\u00f0rinn eftir a\u00f0 \u00fer\u00f3ast \u00ed\u00a0eina fallegustu halastj\u00f6rnu<\/a>, sem s\u00f6gur fara af.\u00a0 Mikil hrifning greip um sig me\u00f0al almennings \u00ed Evr\u00f3pu og Bandar\u00edkjunum og hausti\u00f0 1858 birtist fj\u00f6ldi greina um stj\u00f6rnuna \u00ed erlendum bl\u00f6\u00f0um og t\u00edmaritum. Af henni voru m\u00e1la\u00f0ar myndir og ort um hana\u00a0 lj\u00f3\u00f0 (sj\u00e1 nokkur d\u00e6mi h\u00e9r<\/a>).<\/p>\n

\u00c1 \u00feessum t\u00edma var s\u00fa hj\u00e1tr\u00fa, a\u00f0 halastj\u00f6rnur v\u00e6ru fyrirbo\u00f0ar illra t\u00ed\u00f0inda<\/a>, a\u00f0 mestu horfin. N\u00fd t\u00e6kni og n\u00fdjar kenningar voru \u00ed bur\u00f0arli\u00f0num og \u00e1ttu eftir a\u00f0 valda byltingarkenndum breytingum \u00e1 g\u00f6mlum og gr\u00f3num greinum eins og stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i og n\u00e1tt\u00faruspeki. Svo skemmtilega vill til, a\u00f0 halastjarnan 1858 kom einmitt \u00ed heims\u00f3kn \u00e1 \u00feessu \u00e1hugaver\u00f0a breytingarskei\u00f0i. Um \u00fea\u00f0 ver\u00f0ur r\u00e6tt n\u00e1nar \u00ed seinni hluta f\u00e6rslunnar.<\/p>\n

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Halastjarna Donatis<\/a> s\u00e9\u00f0 fr\u00e1 Oxford \u00ed Englandi snemma kv\u00f6lds hinn 5. okt\u00f3ber 1858. Vatnslitamynd eftir enska m\u00e1larann William Turner<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
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\u00deetta kort kom \u00fat \u00ed byrjun okt\u00f3ber 1858 og var \u00e6tla\u00f0 \u00e1hugas\u00f6mum almenningi. \u00dea\u00f0 s\u00fdnir hreyfingu halastj\u00f6rnunnar \u00e1 hvelfingunni (fr\u00e1 h\u00e6gri til vinstri) og er byggt \u00e1 m\u00e6lingum og \u00fatreikningum stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0ingsins J. R. Hinds<\/a>. Sj\u00e1 einnig \u00fatg\u00e1fu, sem h\u00e6gt er a\u00f0 st\u00e6kka<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

 <\/p>\n

Vi\u00f0br\u00f6g\u00f0 tveggja \u00cdslendinga<\/span><\/h3>\n

Einn af \u00feeim, sem heilla\u00f0ist mj\u00f6g af hinum n\u00fdja gesti \u00e1 stj\u00f6rnuhimninum, var \u00edslenska sk\u00e1ldi\u00f0 Benedikt Gr\u00f6ndal.\u00a0 Hausti\u00f0 1858 var hann staddur \u00ed \u00de\u00fdskalandi \u00fear sem hann fylgdist me\u00f0 Donati-stj\u00f6rnunni og orti um hana \u00e1hrifamiki\u00f0 en frekar \u00feunglyndislegt lj\u00f3\u00f0 \u00ed \u00e1tta erindum. Kv\u00e6\u00f0i\u00f0, Halastjarnan 1858<\/a>, <\/em>var birt \u00ed heild \u00ed \u00dej\u00f3\u00f0\u00f3lfi<\/em> hausti\u00f0 1859, en h\u00e9r er fyrsta erindi\u00f0 eins og Benedikt gekk sj\u00e1lfur fr\u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed \u00ed Kv\u00e6\u00f0ab\u00f3k <\/em>sinni \u00e1ri\u00f0 1900:<\/p>\n

\n

\u00de\u00fa undurlj\u00f3s! sem \u00e1fram stikar
\n\u00f3kunnum heimsins dj\u00fapum fr\u00e1,
\n\u00fe\u00fa sem me\u00f0 geisla-br\u00f6ndum blikar
\nbrug\u00f0inn sem skj\u00f3mi himni \u00e1!
\nHvurt munu \u00fe\u00ednar liggja lei\u00f0ir,
\nlogandi sj\u00f3n, um dimma t\u00ed\u00f0?
\nEldfaldin hr\u00f6nn \u00fe\u00e9r undan frey\u00f0ir,
\n\u00f3ttaleg b\u00e6\u00f0i og meginfr\u00ed\u00f0!<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n

\"\"
Til vinstri: Bj\u00f6rn Gunnlaugsson<\/a> \u00e1ri\u00f0 1859.\u00a0 Til h\u00e6gri: Benedikt Gr\u00f6ndal<\/a> \u00ed kringum 1870.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Umfj\u00f6llun Bj\u00f6rns Gunnlaugssonar, sem birtist \u00ed \u00dej\u00f3\u00f0\u00f3lfi<\/em> 5. n\u00f3vember 1858, var langt fr\u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed jafn lj\u00f3\u00f0r\u00e6n og l\u00fdsing sk\u00e1ldsins. Grein spekingsins, Halastjarnan 1858<\/a>,\u00a0 hefst \u00e1 einfaldri fr\u00e1s\u00f6gn af fer\u00f0alagi stj\u00f6rnunnar \u00ed gegnum stj\u00f6rnumerkin (sj\u00e1 korti\u00f0 h\u00e9r fyrir ne\u00f0an). Stj\u00f6rnuna m\u00e6ldi Bj\u00f6rn fyrst 17. september og var h\u00fan \u00fe\u00e1 \u201e\u00e1 vinstra aptrf\u00e6ti St\u00f3ra Bjarnar<\/a>\u201c. Eftir \u00fea\u00f0 fer\u00f0a\u00f0ist h\u00fan \u00ed gegnum stj\u00f6rnumerkin Beren\u00edkuhadd<\/a> og Hjar\u00f0manninn<\/a> (Nautamanninn), \u00fea\u00f0an sem h\u00fan h\u00e9lt \u00ed \u00e1tt a\u00f0 Na\u00f0urvalda<\/a>.<\/p>\n

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Stj\u00f6rnukort<\/a> C. G. Riedigs fr\u00e1 1849. \u00dearna m\u00e1 sj\u00e1 allar stj\u00f6rnurnar, sem Bj\u00f6rn nefnir \u00ed grein sinni.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

S\u00ed\u00f0an segir \u00ed grein Bj\u00f6rns um m\u00e6lingarnar:<\/p>\n

\u00deann 17. og 23. sept., og 4. oct. m\u00e6ldi eg g\u00e1ng halastj\u00f6rnunnar, \u00fe\u00f3 engan veginn me\u00f0 \u00feeirri n\u00e1kv\u00e6mni sem stj\u00f6rnumeistarar vi\u00f0 hafa, (\u00fev\u00ed eg hefi enga hentugleika \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed; h\u00e8r er hvorki stj\u00f6rnuh\u00fas n\u00e8 hentug verkf\u00e6ri). \u00de\u00f3 held eg s\u00e8 betra fyrir oss \u00cdslendinga a\u00f0 veifa raungu tr\u00e8 en engu, ef a\u00f0 eins hittist n\u00e6rri \u00fev\u00ed r\u00e8tta, vegna \u00feess \u00fea\u00f0 gefr \u00fe\u00f3 hugmynd um halastj\u00f6rnug\u00e1nginn.\u00a0 Fann eg \u00fe\u00e1 me\u00f0 reikningi, og meira \u00fe\u00f3 me\u00f0 Construction (uppdr\u00e6tt[i]<\/em>) \u00feessar eptirfylgjandi grunnt\u00f6lur (Elementa) halastj\u00f6rnunnar:<\/p>\n

T\u00ed\u00f0 s\u00f3ln\u00e1ndar (Perihelii):\u00a0 15. sept. 1858
\nLengd s\u00f3ln\u00e1ndar:\u00a0 67\u00b0 15\u2032
\nS\u00f3ln\u00e1ndar fjarl\u00e6g\u00f0:\u00a0 0,59\u00a0 [lei\u00f0r\u00e9tt \u00ed samr\u00e6mi vi\u00f0 handrit BG]<\/em><\/span>
\nUppst\u00edgandi hn\u00fatr:\u00a0 175\u00b0 30\u2032
\nHalli m\u00f3t s\u00f3lbraut:\u00a0 59\u00b0 30\u2032
\nG\u00e1ngrinn \u00f6fugr.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Samkv\u00e6mt \u00feessu var halastjarnan n\u00e6st s\u00f3linni 15. september 1858 og \u00fe\u00e1 \u00ed 0,59 stjarnfr\u00e6\u00f0ieininga<\/a> fjarl\u00e6g\u00f0 fr\u00e1 henni. Bj\u00f6rn reikna\u00f0i einnig \u00fat, a\u00f0 halastjarnan hef\u00f0i veri\u00f0 n\u00e6st j\u00f6r\u00f0u 8. okt\u00f3ber \u00ed fjarl\u00e6g\u00f0inni 0,34 stjarnfr\u00e6\u00f0ieiningar og a\u00f0 horni\u00f0 milli brautarplana halastj\u00f6rnu og jar\u00f0ar hafi veri\u00f0 59\u00b0 30\u2032. \u00cd s\u00f3ln\u00e1nd hafi hra\u00f0i stj\u00f6rnunnar veri\u00f0 7,5 (danskar) m\u00edlur \u00e1 sek\u00fandu e\u00f0a 56,5 km\/s. Til samanbur\u00f0ar m\u00e1 nefna a\u00f0 me\u00f0alhra\u00f0i jar\u00f0ar \u00e1 braut sinni um s\u00f3lina er 29,8 km\/s.<\/p>\n

Eins og Bj\u00f6rn segir sj\u00e1lfur var a\u00f0sta\u00f0a hans til stj\u00f6rnuathugana ekki s\u00e9rlega g\u00f3\u00f0, enda var h\u00fan tv\u00edm\u00e6lalaust til muna verri en s\u00fa, sem forverar hans \u00e1 \u00cdslandi \u00e1 \u00e1tj\u00e1ndu \u00f6ld bjuggu vi\u00f0 \u00e1 s\u00ednum t\u00edma, \u00feeir Eyj\u00f3lfur J\u00f3nsson<\/a> og Rasmus Lievog<\/a>.<\/p>\n

\u00deegar a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0ur Bj\u00f6rns til stjarnfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegra m\u00e6linga eru haf\u00f0ar \u00ed huga ver\u00f0a ni\u00f0urst\u00f6\u00f0ur hans, bygg\u00f0ar \u00e1 \u00feremur m\u00e6lingum, a\u00f0 teljast fur\u00f0u g\u00f3\u00f0ar. \u00cd al\u00fej\u00f3\u00f0legum fr\u00e6\u00f0iritum m\u00e1 til d\u00e6mis lesa, a\u00f0 \u00ed s\u00f3ln\u00e1nd, 30. september, hafi fjarl\u00e6g\u00f0 halastj\u00f6rnunnar fr\u00e1 s\u00f3linni veri\u00f0\u00a00,58 stjarnfr\u00e6\u00f0ieiningar. H\u00fan hafi veri\u00f0 n\u00e6st j\u00f6r\u00f0u 10. okt\u00f3ber \u00ed fjarl\u00e6g\u00f0inni 0,5 stjarnfr\u00e6\u00f0ieiningar og a\u00f0 horni\u00f0 milli brautanna hafi veri\u00f0 63\u00b0. S\u00fdndarbirta halastj\u00f6rnunnar mun hafa veri\u00f0 \u00ed kringum -1 \u00feegar h\u00fan var bj\u00f6rtust.<\/p>\n

Erlendu ni\u00f0urst\u00f6\u00f0urnar byggja \u00e1 fj\u00f6lda mismunandi m\u00e6linga (a\u00f0 minnsta kosti \u00fe\u00fasund) og \u00e1 s\u00ednum t\u00edma unnu herskarar stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0inga a\u00f0 \u00fatreikningunum. \u00deeir leiddu einnig \u00ed lj\u00f3s, a\u00f0 braut halastj\u00f6rnunnar var \u00edlangur sporbaugur og umfer\u00f0art\u00edminn n\u00e1l\u00e6gt 2000 \u00e1rum. Hi\u00f0 s\u00ed\u00f0astnefnda gat Bj\u00f6rn ekki \u00e1\u00e6tla\u00f0, \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0fer\u00f0in sem hann nota\u00f0i vi\u00f0 reikningana bygg\u00f0ist \u00e1 \u00feeirri n\u00e1lgun, a\u00f0 brautin v\u00e6ri fleygbogi.<\/p>\n

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\u00c1 myndinni er s\u00f3lin sett \u00ed sameiginlegan brennipunkt \u00feriggja keilusni\u00f0a<\/a>. Sj\u00e1 m\u00e1, a\u00f0\u00a0 fleygbogi (parab\u00f3la) er g\u00f3\u00f0 n\u00e1lgun, b\u00e6\u00f0i vi\u00f0 glei\u00f0boga (h\u00fdperb\u00f3lu) og sporbaug\u00a0 (ellipsu) \u00ed n\u00e1grenni vi\u00f0 brennipunktinn. Hins vegar vex skekkjan \u00f6rt eftir \u00fev\u00ed sem fj\u00e6r dregur.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Eftir a\u00f0 hafa \u00e1kvar\u00f0a\u00f0 grunnt\u00f6lur brautarinnar<\/a> nota\u00f0i Bj\u00f6rn fleygbogan\u00e1lgunina \u00e1fram til a\u00f0 l\u00fdsa hreyfingu halastj\u00f6rnunnar \u00ed gegnum s\u00f3lkerfi\u00f0. \u00cd \u00fev\u00ed sambandi segir hann me\u00f0al annars \u00ed grein sinni:<\/p>\n

M\u00e6tti n\u00fa rei\u00f0a sig upp \u00e1 framanskrifa\u00f0ar grunnt\u00f6lur, og v\u00e6ri g\u00e1nghr\u00edngrinn r\u00e8tt Parabola (fleigbogi, fleigibogi) slaungusteins lei\u00f0, einkum \u00ed loptt\u00f3mu r\u00fami, \u00fe\u00e1 m\u00e6tti elta halastj\u00f6rnuna fram \u00far \u00f6llu valdi […]<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n

\u00cd lok l\u00fdsingarinnar segir\u00a0 hann hins vegar:<\/p>\n

L\u00edklega er \u00fe\u00f3 g\u00e1nghr\u00edngurinn ekki Parabola, heldr mj\u00f6g l\u00e1ngur sporbaugr, Ellipsis, og \u00fe\u00e1 l\u00edkist endi hans mj\u00f6g Parabolu, og \u00feess vegna nota menn parabolisku g\u00e1ngl\u00f6gin, me\u00f0an \u00feeir vita ekki meira og halastjarnan hefir ekki s\u00fdnt sig nema einu sinni.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Lesendum v\u00edsar hann svo \u00e1 kaflann um brautir himinhnatta \u00ed Stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/a> Ursins, bls. 100-115, einkum \u00fe\u00f3 bls. 104.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

M\u00e6lingar og \u00fatreikningar Bj\u00f6rns<\/span>
\n<\/span><\/strong><\/h3>\n

Svo vel vill til, a\u00f0 \u00e1 handritadeild \u00dej\u00f3\u00f0arb\u00f3khl\u00f6\u00f0u er ekki a\u00f0eins var\u00f0veitt uppkast Bj\u00f6rns Gunnlaugssonar a\u00f0 greininni \u00ed \u00dej\u00f3\u00f0\u00f3lfi<\/em>, heldur einnig vinnub\u00f3k hans me\u00f0 m\u00e6lingunum \u00e1 sta\u00f0setningu halastj\u00f6rnunnar og \u00fatreikningunum \u00e1 braut hennar. Verki\u00f0 er a\u00f0 finna undir safnt\u00e1kninu Lbs. 2007, 4to<\/em>.<\/p>\n

R\u00e9tt er a\u00f0 minna \u00e1, a\u00f0 Bj\u00f6rn var eini ma\u00f0urinn \u00e1 landinu \u00e1 \u00feessum t\u00edma, sem gat framkv\u00e6mt sl\u00edka \u00fatreikninga. \u00de\u00f3 er hugsanlegt a\u00f0 vinur hans, J\u00f3n Bjarnason b\u00f3ndi \u00ed \u00de\u00f3rormstungu, hef\u00f0i komist eitthva\u00f0 \u00e1lei\u00f0is me\u00f0 \u00fe\u00e1, alla vega var hann \u00ed miklu \u00e1liti hj\u00e1 Birni vegna kunn\u00e1ttu sinnar \u00ed stjarnfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegum reikningum. \u00deetta kemur til d\u00e6mis fram \u00ed minningargrein<\/a> Bj\u00f6rns um J\u00f3n \u00e1ri\u00f0 1862.<\/p>\n

\u00cd upphafi vinnub\u00f3karinnar er \u00feess geti\u00f0, a\u00f0 P\u00e1ll Melsted<\/a> hafi s\u00e9\u00f0 halastj\u00f6rnuna hinn 11. september 1858 og Bj\u00f6rn hafi fyrst s\u00e9\u00f0 hana sj\u00e1lfur 14. september. Fyrstu m\u00e6lingarnar framkv\u00e6mdi hann \u00fe\u00f3 ekki fyrr en 17. september og nota\u00f0i \u00fe\u00e1 kva\u00f0rant<\/a> til a\u00f0 \u00e1kvar\u00f0a st\u00f6\u00f0u halastj\u00f6rnunnar \u00e1 hvelfingunni \u00fat fr\u00e1 n\u00e1l\u00e6gum fastastj\u00f6rnum. M\u00e6lingarnar endurt\u00f3k hann 23. september, s\u00ed\u00f0an 30. september og loks 4. okt\u00f3ber. \u00cd framhaldinu \u00e1kva\u00f0 hann a\u00f0 nota fyrstu tv\u00e6r ni\u00f0urst\u00f6\u00f0urnar \u00e1samt \u00feeirri s\u00ed\u00f0ustu til a\u00f0 gr\u00f3freikna braut stj\u00f6rnunnar me\u00f0 fleygbogan\u00e1lgun.<\/p>\n

Eins og \u00e1\u00f0ur hefur komi\u00f0 fram, eru brautir halastjarna n\u00e1l\u00e6gt \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 vera fleygbogar \u00e1 \u00feeim hlutanum, sem n\u00e6stur er s\u00f3linni. \u00cdsak Newton<\/a> nota\u00f0i fleygbogan\u00e1lgun fyrstur manna \u00ed b\u00f3k sinni Principia<\/a> \u00fear\u00a0 sem hann beitti r\u00famfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegum a\u00f0fer\u00f0um til a\u00f0 \u00e1kvar\u00f0a braut halastj\u00f6rnunnar 1680<\/a> \u00fat fr\u00e1 \u00feremur sta\u00f0arm\u00e6lingum. \u00c1 seinni hluta \u00e1tj\u00e1ndu aldar endurb\u00e6ttu og \u00fatv\u00edkku\u00f0u st\u00e6r\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0ilegu l\u00e6rd\u00f3msmennirnir L. Euler<\/a>, J. H. Lambert<\/a>, J. L. Lagrange<\/a>, P. S. Laplace<\/a>, H. W. Olbers<\/a> og fleiri a\u00f0fer\u00f0 Newtons, \u00feannig a\u00f0 h\u00e6gt v\u00e6ri a\u00f0 reikna brautir halastjarna (og annarra himinhnatta) \u00e1n r\u00famfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegra teikninga. Um og upp \u00far aldam\u00f3tunum 1800 fann C. F. Gauss<\/a> svo almenna a\u00f0fer\u00f0 til a\u00f0 \u00e1kvar\u00f0a hva\u00f0a braut sem er \u00fat fr\u00e1 \u00feremur m\u00e6lipunktum. Fyrir \u00fe\u00e1 uppg\u00f6tvun hlaut hann heimsfr\u00e6g\u00f0<\/a>. (Sj\u00e1 einnig h\u00e9r<\/a> og h\u00e9r<\/a>).<\/p>\n

\u00cd upphafi reikninganna \u00ed vinnub\u00f3kinni notast Bj\u00f6rn vi\u00f0 framsetningu \u00far vel \u00feekktu en frekar g\u00f6mlu yfirlitsriti<\/a> eftir \u00fe\u00fdska stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0inginn F. Th. Schubert<\/a> (2. bindi, bls. 339). Eftir einar \u00e1tta s\u00ed\u00f0ur af \u00fatreikningum kemst hann loks a\u00f0 ni\u00f0urst\u00f6\u00f0u um grunnt\u00f6lur brautarinnar. \u00c1tta s\u00ed\u00f0ur til vi\u00f0b\u00f3tar fara \u00ed \u00fea\u00f0 a\u00f0 reikna \u00fat hra\u00f0a halastj\u00f6rnunnar \u00ed s\u00f3ln\u00e1nd og st\u00f6\u00f0u hennar \u00e1 brautinni \u00e1 hinum \u00fdmsu t\u00edmum.<\/p>\n

T\u00f6lvur voru ekki komnar til s\u00f6gunnar \u00e1 \u00feessum t\u00edma, svo helsta hj\u00e1lpart\u00e6ki\u00f0 vi\u00f0 reikningana voru t\u00f6flur af \u00fdmsu tagi, s\u00e9rstaklega \u00fe\u00f3 l\u00f3garitmat\u00f6flur.\u00a0 Eina sl\u00edka er a\u00f0 finna \u00ed \u00feessu t\u00f6fluhefti<\/a> fr\u00e1 fyrri hluta n\u00edtj\u00e1ndu aldar. H\u00f6fundur er franski stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0ingurinn J. Lalande<\/a>, en Bj\u00f6rn \u00feekkti vel til verka hans um stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i og \u00e1tti t\u00f6flur hans \u00ed einhverri \u00fatg\u00e1fu.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Opna \u00far vinnub\u00f3k Bj\u00f6rns Gunnlaugssonar um halastj\u00f6rnuna 1858. Vinstra megin m\u00e1 sj\u00e1 \u00fatreikninga hans \u00e1 minnstu fjarl\u00e6g\u00f0 halastj\u00f6rnunnar fr\u00e1 s\u00f3linni og til h\u00e6gri er \u00e1kv\u00f6r\u00f0un hans \u00e1 dagsetningu s\u00f3ln\u00e1ndarinnar.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
\"\"
Vinnub\u00f3karteikning Bj\u00f6rns af s\u00f3lbaugsplaninu (jar\u00f0brautarplaninu) og ofanvarpi nokkurra lengdarbauga (\u00ed s\u00f3lbaugshnitakerfinu) \u00e1 \u00fea\u00f0. Baugarnir og anna\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0, sem teikna\u00f0 er inn \u00e1 myndina, tengist m\u00e6lingum Bj\u00f6rns \u00e1 st\u00f6\u00f0u halastj\u00f6rnunnar \u00e1 hvelfingunni og reikningum hans til a\u00f0 \u00e1kvar\u00f0a braut hennar. Hin fornu t\u00e1kn fyrir stj\u00f6rnumerki d\u00fdrahringsins<\/a> \u00e6ttu a\u00f0 au\u00f0velda skilning \u00e1 framsetningunni.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

\u00dea\u00f0 er athyglisvert, a\u00f0 \u00ed vinnub\u00f3kinni er a\u00f0 finna uppskrift Bj\u00f6rns \u00e1 fr\u00e9ttapistli eftir (\u00e1\u00f0urnefndan) J. R. Hind \u00ed dagbla\u00f0inu The Daily Scotsman<\/em> fr\u00e1 13. \u00e1g\u00fast 1858. \u00dear birtir Hind me\u00f0al annars \u00fe\u00e6r ni\u00f0urst\u00f6\u00f0ur s\u00ednar, a\u00f0 halastjarnan ver\u00f0i \u00ed s\u00f3ln\u00e1nd 22. september og a\u00f0 horni\u00f0 milli brautar hennar og jar\u00f0brautarinnar s\u00e9 65\u00b014\u2032. \u00deetta byggir hann \u00e1 \u00feremur m\u00e6lingum, fyrst \u00ed Fl\u00f3rens 7. j\u00fan\u00ed, s\u00ed\u00f0an \u00ed Pad\u00faa 19. j\u00fan\u00ed og loks \u00ed Washington 11. j\u00fal\u00ed.<\/p>\n

Ekki er lj\u00f3st hven\u00e6r Bj\u00f6rn hefur fyrst fengi\u00f0 \u00feessa grein \u00ed hendur en hann notar g\u00f6gn Hinds, b\u00e6\u00f0i til samanbur\u00f0ar vi\u00f0 eigin ni\u00f0urst\u00f6\u00f0ur og einnig til frekari \u00fatreikninga, sem taka upp n\u00e6stu \u00e1tta s\u00ed\u00f0ur \u00ed vinnub\u00f3kinni. \u00dear v\u00edsar hann (reyndar frekar \u00f3lj\u00f3st) \u00ed rit eftir austurr\u00edska stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0inginn J. J. Littrow<\/a>, sennilega kaflann um halastj\u00f6rnur \u00ed kennslub\u00f3k hans<\/a> fr\u00e1 1821.<\/p>\n

\u00cd lok vinnub\u00f3karinnar notar Bj\u00f6rn ni\u00f0urst\u00f6\u00f0ur s\u00ednar til \u00feess a\u00f0 reikna \u00fat sta\u00f0setningu halastj\u00f6rnunnar \u00e1 hvelfingunni 2. j\u00fan\u00ed 1858, daginn sem h\u00fan var uppg\u00f6tvu\u00f0. Eftir fj\u00f6gurra s\u00ed\u00f0na \u00fatreikninga kemst hann a\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed, a\u00f0 h\u00fan hafi \u00fe\u00e1 veri\u00f0 milli Meyjarinnar<\/a> og Bikarsins<\/a>. \u00dearna skeikar talsver\u00f0u, \u00fev\u00ed Donati<\/a> mun fyrst hafa s\u00e9\u00f0 glitta \u00ed stj\u00f6rnuna vi\u00f0 h\u00f6fu\u00f0 Lj\u00f3nsins<\/a>. Ni\u00f0ursta\u00f0a Bj\u00f6rns s\u00fdnir \u00fev\u00ed vel hvernig fleygbogan\u00e1lgunin bregst, \u00feegar fj\u00e6r dregur s\u00f3ln\u00e1ndarpunktinum.<\/p>\n

\u00d6ll framsetning \u00e1 efninu \u00ed vinnub\u00f3kinni sta\u00f0festir \u00fea\u00f0 sem \u00e1\u00f0ur var reyndar vita\u00f0, a\u00f0 eftir a\u00f0 Bj\u00f6rn kom heim fr\u00e1 n\u00e1mi \u00e1ri\u00f0 1822 st\u00f3\u00f0 hann hvorki \u00ed br\u00e9faskiptum vi\u00f0 erlenda stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0inga n\u00e9 haf\u00f0i a\u00f0gang a\u00f0 fagt\u00edmaritum \u00ed stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i. Fr\u00e9ttir fr\u00e1 \u00fatl\u00f6ndum hefur hann \u00fev\u00ed fyrst og fremst fengi\u00f0 \u00ed gegnum erlend dagbl\u00f6\u00f0 og almenn t\u00edmarit.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Athuganir \u00e1 hinum Nor\u00f0url\u00f6ndunum<\/span><\/h3>\n

Af athugasemdum \u00ed vinnub\u00f3k Bj\u00f6rns m\u00e1 sj\u00e1, a\u00f0 fjalla\u00f0 hefur veri\u00f0 um halastj\u00f6rnuna \u00ed d\u00f6nskum dagbl\u00f6\u00f0um, til d\u00e6mis \u00ed Berlingske Tidende<\/em> b\u00e6\u00f0i 9. og 30. okt\u00f3ber og \u00ed F\u00e6drelandet<\/em> hinn 16. sama m\u00e1na\u00f0ar.<\/p>\n

Hinn n\u00fdskipa\u00f0i pr\u00f3fessor \u00ed stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i vi\u00f0 H\u00e1sk\u00f3lann \u00ed Kaupmannah\u00f6fn, H. L. d’Arrest<\/a>, s\u00e1 halastj\u00f6rnuna fyrst sem \u00f6rl\u00edtinn \u00feokublett 7. \u00e1g\u00fast og h\u00f3fst strax handa vi\u00f0 athuganir. \u00c1 n\u00e6stu m\u00e1nu\u00f0um fylgdist hann n\u00e1i\u00f0 me\u00f0 stj\u00f6rnunni \u00ed gegnum fimm feta langan Fraunhofer<\/a>-sj\u00f3nauka og naut \u00fear a\u00f0sto\u00f0ar nemanda s\u00edns og s\u00ed\u00f0ar eftirmanns, Th. N. Thiele<\/a>. M\u00e6lingarnar voru ger\u00f0ar \u00ed g\u00f6mlu stj\u00f6rnuathugunarst\u00f6\u00f0inni<\/a> \u00e1 \u00feaki S\u00edvalaturns \u00fear sem hin n\u00fdja athugunarst\u00f6\u00f0 \u00e1 \u00d8stervold<\/a> var ekki tekin \u00ed notkun fyrr en \u00feremur \u00e1rum s\u00ed\u00f0ar.<\/p>\n

d’Arrest g\u00e6tti \u00feess vel a\u00f0 koma uppl\u00fdsingum um athuganir s\u00ednar \u00e1 halastj\u00f6rnunni v\u00ed\u00f0a \u00e1 framf\u00e6ri, en \u00edtarlegustu sk\u00fdrsluna er a\u00f0 finna h\u00e9r<\/a>.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Teikningar d’Arrests af h\u00f6f\u00f0i halastj\u00f6rnunnar 30. september og aftur 5. okt\u00f3ber, \u00feegar kjarni hennar var\u00a0 ekki nema 20 bogam\u00edn\u00fatur sunnan vi\u00f0 stj\u00f6rnuna Arkt\u00farus. Su\u00f0ur er upp \u00e1 myndinni og nor\u00f0ur ni\u00f0ur.\u00a0 Til h\u00e6gri er mynd af S\u00edvalaturni fr\u00e1 \u00e1runum \u00ed kringum 1840. Stj\u00f6rnuathugunarst\u00f6\u00f0in er \u00e1 turn\u00feakinu.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Eins og sj\u00e1 m\u00e1 \u00e1 mynd d’Arrests h\u00e9r fyrir ofan hittust halastjarnan og s\u00f3lstjarnan Arkt\u00farus<\/a> \u00e1 hvelfingunni hinn 5. okt\u00f3ber 1858. \u00dea\u00f0 mun hafa veri\u00f0 tilkomumikil sj\u00f3n og er me\u00f0al annars til umfj\u00f6llunar \u00ed \u00f6\u00f0ru erindinu \u00ed \u00e1\u00f0urnefndu lj\u00f3\u00f0i Benedikts Gr\u00f6ndals:<\/p>\n

\n

Svo l\u00edt jeg Arkt\u00fars gl\u00f3\u00f0ir glitra
\ngegnum hinn bjarta logav\u00f6nd,
\nfegri en demants funar titra
\n\u00ed fingurgulli \u00e1 meyjar h\u00f6nd.<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n

Til sk\u00fdringar segir Gr\u00f6ndal \u00ed Kv\u00e6\u00f0ab\u00f3kinni<\/em> (1900):<\/p>\n

\u00de\u00e1 s\u00fdndist sj\u00e1lfur halastj\u00f6rnu-hn\u00f6tturinn fyrir ne\u00f0an Arkt\u00farus, sem er stjarna af fyrstu st\u00e6r\u00f0, \u00e1 sk\u00e1\u00a0 fyrir ne\u00f0an st\u00f3ra bj\u00f6rninn,\u00a0 og tindra\u00f0i h\u00fan \u00ed gegnum stj\u00f6rnuhalann; \u00fea\u00f0 var sannarlega himnesk sj\u00f3n.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

\u00cd stj\u00f6rnuathugunarst\u00f6\u00f0inni \u00ed Kristjan\u00edu<\/a> (n\u00fa Osl\u00f3) var fylgst grannt me\u00f0 halastj\u00f6rnunni me\u00f0 \u00f6llum tilt\u00e6kum sj\u00f3naukum. Hreyfing hennar \u00e1 hvelfingunni var kortl\u00f6g\u00f0 me\u00f0 endurteknum m\u00e6lingum fr\u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed \u00ed \u00e1g\u00fast og fram \u00ed okt\u00f3ber. Pr\u00f3fessor C. Hansteen<\/a> mun l\u00edti\u00f0 hafa komi\u00f0 \u00fear vi\u00f0 s\u00f6gu, og \u00fea\u00f0 var ver\u00f0andi eftirma\u00f0ur hans, C. F. Fearnley<\/a>, sem s\u00e1 um m\u00e6lingarnar me\u00f0 g\u00f3\u00f0ri a\u00f0sto\u00f0 \u00feeirra H. Mohns<\/a> og O. Pihls<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Ni\u00f0urst\u00f6\u00f0um Kristjan\u00edum\u00e6linganna var komi\u00f0 \u00e1 framf\u00e6ri \u00e1 al\u00fej\u00f3\u00f0legum vettvangi me\u00f0 hef\u00f0bundnum h\u00e6tti. N\u00fdlega kom \u00fe\u00f3 \u00ed lj\u00f3s, a\u00f0 til vi\u00f0b\u00f3tar haf\u00f0i Fearnley teikna\u00f0 fj\u00f6lda n\u00e1kv\u00e6mra mynda af halastj\u00f6rnunni \u00e1 mismunandi t\u00edmum, en ekki hirt um a\u00f0 birta \u00fe\u00e6r opinberlega. Um \u00feetta \u00e1hugaver\u00f0a atri\u00f0i er r\u00e6tt \u00ed\u00a0n\u00fdlegri grein<\/a>, sem h\u00e9r hefur veri\u00f0 stu\u00f0st vi\u00f0. \u00dear er \u00feess einnig geti\u00f0, a\u00f0 Nor\u00f0mennirnir hafi framkv\u00e6mt skautunarm\u00e6lingar \u00e1 lj\u00f3si halastj\u00f6rnunnar, b\u00e6\u00f0i me\u00f0 svonefndri Savart skautunarsj\u00e1<\/a> og heimager\u00f0um b\u00fana\u00f0i. Lj\u00f3si\u00f0 reyndist vera skauta\u00f0, sem benti til \u00feess a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 v\u00e6ri endurkasta\u00f0 s\u00f3larlj\u00f3s.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Teikning Fearnleys af Donati-stj\u00f6rnunni me\u00f0 fj\u00f6gurra daga millibili. Fyrst 5. okt\u00f3ber (h\u00f6fu\u00f0 n\u00e1l\u00e6gt Arkt\u00farusi) og s\u00ed\u00f0ar (lengra til vinstri) 9. okt\u00f3ber.\u00a0 Nor\u00f0ur er upp og til h\u00e6gri \u00e1 myndinni og austur til vinstri og upp.\u00a0 Myndin h\u00e6gra megin s\u00fdnir stj\u00f6rnuahugunarst\u00f6\u00f0ina \u00ed Kristjan\u00edu (n\u00fa Osl\u00f3), sem tekin var \u00ed notkun 1833 (teikning eftir C. H. Grosch<\/a>).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

M\u00e9r ekki kunnugt um a\u00f0 neinar s\u00e6nskar m\u00e6lini\u00f0urst\u00f6\u00f0ur tengdar halastj\u00f6rnunni hafi veri\u00f0 birtar al\u00fej\u00f3\u00f0legu samf\u00e9lagi stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0inga. Hins vegar herma s\u00f6gur, a\u00f0 almenningur \u00ed Stokkh\u00f3lmi hafi fylgst me\u00f0 fyrirb\u00e6rinu me\u00f0 samblandi af \u00f3tta og hrifningu. Um \u00fea\u00f0 m\u00e1 lesa n\u00e1nar h\u00e9r<\/a>.<\/p>\n

\u00c9g hef ekki heldur haft neinar fr\u00e9ttir af finnskum m\u00e6lingum \u00e1 halastj\u00f6rnunni. Aftur \u00e1 m\u00f3ti orti finnski rith\u00f6fundurinn Zacharias Topelius<\/a> miki\u00f0 lj\u00f3\u00f0 \u00ed n\u00edu erindum<\/a> \u00fear sem hann gefur stj\u00f6rnunni or\u00f0i\u00f0. H\u00e9r er anna\u00f0 erindi\u00f0:<\/p>\n

\n

Jag \u00e4r ett vilset flarn p\u00e5 rymdens oceaner,
\nen sv\u00e4fvande atom uti ett strandl\u00f6st haf,
\nen dimmig embryon bland v\u00e4rldar af titaner,
\nett sp\u00f6ke, stiget upp ur evighetens graf.
\n\u00d6b\u00e4ndig i min kraft, med \u00e4n knappt tyglad bana,
\njag rusar i den rymd, som inga siffror ana,
\nfr\u00e5n m\u00f6rkret af en natt, som ingen str\u00e5le n\u00e5r,
\ntill outh\u00e4rdlig glans i solens gyllne v\u00e5r.<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n

 <\/p>\n

A\u00f0rar erlendar ranns\u00f3knir<\/span>
\n<\/span><\/strong><\/h3>\n

F\u00e1ar halastj\u00f6rnur \u00e1 n\u00edtj\u00e1ndu \u00f6ld hlutu jafn\u00a0mikla athygli og Donati-stjarnan. H\u00fan var \u00f3venju bj\u00f6rt og f\u00f6gur, og \u00e1 nor\u00f0urhveli var ve\u00f0ur s\u00e9rstaklega hentugt til stj\u00f6rnusko\u00f0unar \u00ed september og okt\u00f3ber 1858.<\/p>\n

\u00deegar hefur veri\u00f0 minnst \u00e1 \u00e1huga almennings, en fj\u00f6ldi stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0inga fylgdist einnig me\u00f0 braut og \u00fatliti halastj\u00f6rnunnar, ekki a\u00f0eins \u00ed Evr\u00f3pu og Bandar\u00edkjunum, heldur einnig \u00e1 su\u00f0urhveli, \u00feegar halastjarnan f\u00e6r\u00f0i sig sunnar. Fyrir \u00fe\u00e1 sem hafa \u00e1huga \u00e1 a\u00f0 kynna s\u00e9r \u00feessar athuganir og m\u00e6lingar \u00ed meiri sm\u00e1atri\u00f0um er bent \u00e1 hnitmi\u00f0a\u00f0a umfj\u00f6llun \u00ed\u00a0yfirlitsriti Kronks<\/a> (bls. 268-276).<\/p>\n

\u00c1st\u00e6\u00f0a er til a\u00f0 minnast s\u00e9rstaklega \u00e1 \u00edtarlegar ranns\u00f3knir bandar\u00edska stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0ingsins G. P. Bond<\/a> sem fylgdist samviskusamlega me\u00f0 halastj\u00f6rnunni fr\u00e1 athugunarst\u00f6\u00f0 Harvardh\u00e1sk\u00f3la<\/a>. \u00c1ri\u00f0 1862 gaf hann \u00fat miki\u00f0 verk <\/a>um ranns\u00f3knir s\u00ednar og annarra \u00e1 stj\u00f6rnunni. \u00dear eru me\u00f0al annars margar fallegar teikningar af halastj\u00f6rnunni og \u00edtarlegar uppl\u00fdsingar um m\u00e6lini\u00f0urst\u00f6\u00f0ur. Eftirfrarandi tv\u00e6r teikningar eru \u00far b\u00f3kinni:<\/p>\n

\"\"
Braut halastj\u00f6rnunnar \u00e1samt ofanvarpi jar\u00f0brautarinnar \u00e1 halastj\u00f6rnuplani\u00f0.\u00a0 \u00d6rvarnar gefa til kynna hreyfingarstefnur. Einnig er s\u00fdnt hvar \u00e1 brautunum j\u00f6r\u00f0in og halastjarnan voru \u00e1 hinum \u00fdmsu d\u00f6gum \u00e1 t\u00edmabilinu fr\u00e1 j\u00fan\u00ed 1858 til jan\u00faar 1859.\u00a0 Teikningin er \u00far b\u00f3k Bonds. Fyrir \u00fe\u00e1, sem vilja kanna braut halastj\u00f6rnunnar n\u00e1nar, m\u00e1 benda \u00e1 s\u00e9rstaka reikniv\u00e9l<\/a> \u00e1 vegum JPL-stofnunarinnar<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
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Halastjarna Donatis \u00e1 fleygifer\u00f0 \u00e1 nor\u00f0urhimni n\u00e6turnar 27. september (efri myndin) og 28.\u00a0september (ne\u00f0ri myndin) 1858. Sveig\u00f0ur halinn s\u00e9st mj\u00f6g greinilega. Hann er \u00ed\u00a0stj\u00f6rnumerki Vei\u00f0ihundanna<\/a> og stefnir \u00e1 Karlsvagninn<\/a>. Ef r\u00fdnt er \u00ed myndirnar m\u00e1 sj\u00e1 m\u00f3ta fyrir gr\u00f6nnum og beinum aukahala fyrir ofan a\u00f0alhalann. Teikningar eru \u00far b\u00f3k Bonds (milli bls. 22 0g 23).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Eitt af \u00fev\u00ed, sem Bond kanna\u00f0i gaumg\u00e6filega, var \u00fatlit Donati-stj\u00f6rnunnar.\u00a0 \u00c1 \u00feessum t\u00edma var \u00feekking manna \u00e1 e\u00f0li halanna takm\u00f6rku\u00f0, \u00fe\u00f3tt hin vi\u00f0tekna sko\u00f0un v\u00e6ri \u00ed meginatri\u00f0um r\u00e9tt; a\u00f0 halinn v\u00e6ri \u00far efni sem k\u00e6mi fr\u00e1 kjarna e\u00f0a h\u00f6f\u00f0i stj\u00f6rnunnar sj\u00e1lfrar. Til n\u00e1nari \u00faf\u00e6rslu \u00feurfti hins vegar b\u00e6\u00f0i n\u00fdja m\u00e6lit\u00e6kni og\u00a0 betri e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0ikenningar. \u00deannig vildi til, a\u00f0 einmitt \u00e1 \u00feessum t\u00edma var hvorttveggja \u00ed bur\u00f0arli\u00f0num. Hin n\u00fdja stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i, \u00fea\u00f0 er stjarne\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0in, var r\u00e9tt handan vi\u00f0 horni\u00f0.<\/p>\n

\u00cd dag vitum vi\u00f0 a\u00f0 halarnir eru tvenns konar. Annars vegar er a\u00f0alhalinn, svokalla\u00f0ur rykhali, sem s\u00e9st vegna \u00feess a\u00f0 hann endurkastar s\u00f3larlj\u00f3si. Hins vegar er gashali, sem er sj\u00e1lfl\u00fdsandi vegna \u00feess a\u00f0 efni hans er j\u00f3na\u00f0. Sj\u00e1 n\u00e1nar h\u00e9r<\/a> og h\u00e9r<\/a>.<\/p>\n

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M\u00e1lverk af Donati-stj\u00f6rnunni yfir Par\u00eds \u00ed okt\u00f3ber 1858. \u00dar b\u00f3k A. Guillemins<\/a> um halastj\u00f6rnur fr\u00e1 1875 (ensk \u00fe\u00fd\u00f0ing h\u00e9r<\/a>). \u00datlit stj\u00f6rnunnar er byggt \u00e1 l\u00fdsingum sj\u00f3narvotta og m\u00e6lingum stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0inga, ekki s\u00edst Bonds. \u00dearna m\u00e1 sj\u00e1 hinn mikla og sveig\u00f0a rykhala og tvo tilt\u00f6lulega beina j\u00f3nahala. Bjarta stjarnan h\u00e6gra megin vi\u00f0 h\u00f6fu\u00f0 halastj\u00f6rnunnar er Arkt\u00farus. Ofar, h\u00e6ra megin vi\u00f0 rykhalann m\u00e1 sj\u00e1 \u00ferj\u00e1r af stj\u00f6rnum Kalsvagnsins. \u00d6rl\u00edti\u00f0 ne\u00f0ar, vinstra megin vi\u00f0 j\u00f3nahalana, er Nor\u00f0urk\u00f3r\u00f3nan<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

 <\/p>\n

Stjarnv\u00edsindabyltingin \u00e1 n\u00edtj\u00e1ndu \u00f6ld
\n<\/span><\/p>\n

S\u00f6gu stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0innar \u00e1 n\u00edtj\u00e1ndu \u00f6ld eru ger\u00f0 pr\u00fd\u00f0ileg skil \u00ed merku yfirlitsriti<\/a> eftir \u00edrska stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0inginn og rith\u00f6fundinn A. M. Clerke<\/a>, sem kom fyrst \u00fat 1885 og \u00ed nokkrum \u00fatg\u00e1fum s\u00ed\u00f0ar. \u00dear kemur sk\u00fdrt fram, a\u00f0 langt fram eftir \u00f6ldinni l\u00f6g\u00f0u stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0ingar megin\u00e1herslu \u00e1 \u00fea\u00f0 a\u00f0 reikna \u00fat brautir himinhnatta me\u00f0 s\u00edvaxandi n\u00e1kv\u00e6mni. Jafnframt var mikil vinna l\u00f6g\u00f0 \u00ed \u00fer\u00f3un og sm\u00ed\u00f0i n\u00fdrra sj\u00f3nauka, ekki s\u00edst linsusj\u00f3nauka, einkum til \u00feess a\u00f0 geta framkv\u00e6mt sem n\u00e1kv\u00e6mastar sta\u00f0ar- og t\u00edmam\u00e6lingar.
\n<\/span><\/p>\n

\u00deessi \u00fer\u00f3un ger\u00f0i \u00fea\u00f0 me\u00f0al annars a\u00f0 verkum, a\u00f0 \u00e1ri\u00f0 1838 t\u00f3kst \u00ed fyrsta sinn a\u00f0 m\u00e6la \u00e1rlega hli\u00f0run<\/a> n\u00e1l\u00e6gra fastastjarna og leggja \u00feannig grunn a\u00f0 n\u00e1kv\u00e6mri kortlagingu stj\u00f6rnudreifingar \u00ed n\u00e6sta n\u00e1grenni s\u00f3lkerfisins.<\/p>\n

Me\u00f0 nokkrum r\u00e9tti m\u00e1 segja, a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 hafi veri\u00f0 franski stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0ingurinn F. Arago<\/a>, sem fyrstur innleiddi \u201ee\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegar m\u00e6lingar\u201c \u00ed stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i. \u00c1ri\u00f0 1811 beitti hann n\u00fdrri t\u00e6kni til a\u00f0 framkv\u00e6ma skautunarm\u00e6lingu \u00e1 tunglslj\u00f3si<\/a> og 1819 ger\u00f0i hann hi\u00f0 sama fyrir lj\u00f3s<\/a> fr\u00e1 halastj\u00f6rnu<\/a> og bar saman vi\u00f0 skautunarm\u00e6lingar \u00e1 s\u00f3lstj\u00f6rnunni Kapellu<\/a> \u00ed \u00d6kumanninum<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Skautunarm\u00e6lingarnar eiga \u00fea\u00f0 sameiginlegt me\u00f0 lj\u00f3s- og birtum\u00e6lingum<\/a>, a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 t\u00f3k talsver\u00f0an t\u00edma \u00fear til h\u00e6gt var a\u00f0 b\u00faa til n\u00e6gjanlega n\u00e1kv\u00e6ma sta\u00f0la til a\u00f0 tryggja \u00e1rei\u00f0anlegan samanbur\u00f0 mismunandi m\u00e6linga. Skautunarm\u00e6lingar voru \u00fe\u00f3 miki\u00f0 nota\u00f0ar af stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0ingum \u00e1 n\u00edtj\u00e1ndu \u00f6ld, til d\u00e6mis til a\u00f0 \u00e1kvar\u00f0a skautun lj\u00f3ss fr\u00e1 Donati-stj\u00f6rnunni 1858, eins og \u00feegar hefur veri\u00f0 minnst \u00e1.<\/p>\n

Stjarne\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0in, hin n\u00fdja st\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i, sem t\u00f3k s\u00edn fyrstu spor \u00e1 seinni hluta n\u00edtj\u00e1ndu aldar bygg\u00f0ist \u00ed upphafi \u00e1 tveimur byltingarkenndum uppg\u00f6tvunum. Annars vegar var um a\u00f0 r\u00e6\u00f0a hina n\u00fdju lj\u00f3smyndat\u00e6kni<\/a> og hins vegar, og kannski enn frekar, litr\u00f3fsgreiningu<\/a> efna og efnasambanda.<\/p>\n

Stj\u00f6rnulj\u00f3smyndun<\/strong><\/p>\n

Fyrstu stj\u00f6rnulj\u00f3smyndirnar voru teknar um og upp\u00far 1840, en allm\u00f6rg \u00e1r \u00e1ttu eftir a\u00f0 l\u00ed\u00f0a \u00fear til \u201ealv\u00f6ru stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0ingar\u201c t\u00f3ku a\u00f0 s\u00fdna \u00feeim \u00e1huga (sj\u00e1 \u00e1g\u00e6tis yfirlit h\u00e9r<\/a>). Me\u00f0al hinna fyrstu \u00far \u00feeim h\u00f3pi, voru fe\u00f0garnir William og George Bond, sem voru framarlega \u00ed h\u00f3pi bandar\u00edskra stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0inga um mi\u00f0ja n\u00edtj\u00e1ndu \u00f6ld. \u00deeir eru n\u00fa einna \u00feekktastir fyrir a\u00f0 leggja grunninn a\u00f0 ranns\u00f3knum \u00ed stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i vi\u00f0 hina merku stj\u00f6rnuathugunarst\u00f6\u00f0 Harvardh\u00e1sk\u00f3la<\/a>.<\/p>\n

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Lj\u00f3smyndarinn J. A. Whipple<\/a> t\u00f3k \u00feessa mynd af tunglinu me\u00f0\u00a0 Daguerre t\u00e6kni<\/a> \u00e1ri\u00f0 1852. Til \u00feess nota\u00f0i hann 15-\u00feumlunga (38 cm) linsusj\u00f3naukann \u00ed Harvard<\/a> og naut \u00fear a\u00f0sto\u00f0ar stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0ingsins W. C. Bonds<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Eins og \u00e1\u00f0ur hefur komi\u00f0 fram, var George Bond h\u00f6fundur hins mikla rits um Donati-halastj\u00f6rnuna, sem kom \u00fat 1862. \u00dear er \u00fe\u00f3 engar lj\u00f3smyndir a\u00f0 finna og allar myndirnar \u00ed b\u00f3kinni eru teikna\u00f0ar. Hins vegar t\u00f3kst Bond a\u00f0 n\u00e1 daufri lj\u00f3smynd af halastj\u00f6rnunni hinn 28. september 1858 (sj\u00e1 myndina h\u00e9r fyrir ne\u00f0an). Reyndar haf\u00f0i enski lj\u00f3smyndarinn W. Usherwood<\/a> teki\u00f0 mynd af stj\u00f6rnunni n\u00f3ttina \u00e1\u00f0ur, en s\u00fa s\u00fa mynd er l\u00f6ngu gl\u00f6tu\u00f0. \u00deannig er \u00feessi mynd Bonds n\u00fa elsta var\u00f0veitta lj\u00f3smyndin, sem til er af halastj\u00f6rnu (sj\u00e1 \u00edtarlega umfj\u00f6llun \u00ed \u00feessari fr\u00f3\u00f0legu grein<\/a>).<\/p>\n

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St\u00e6kku\u00f0 lj\u00f3smynd af h\u00f6f\u00f0i halastj\u00f6rnu Donatis fr\u00e1 28. september 1858. Myndina t\u00f3k\u00a0G. P. Bond<\/a> me\u00f0 15 \u00feumlunga linsusj\u00f3naukanum \u00ed Harvard. \u00deetta er fyrsta lj\u00f3smynd af halastj\u00f6rnu sem var\u00f0veist hefur. H\u00fan var \u00fe\u00f3 ekki birt opinberlega<\/a> fyrr en 1996.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Sennilega hafa \u00cdslendingar fr\u00e9tt tilt\u00f6lulega snemma af hinni n\u00fdja undri, lj\u00f3smyndinni. \u00cd E\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/em> Fischers fr\u00e1 1852 m\u00e1 til d\u00e6mis finna eftirfarandi umfj\u00f6llun \u00ed \u00edtarlegri l\u00fdsingu \u00e1 myrkurh\u00fasinu<\/a> (camera obscura) \u00e1 s\u00ed\u00f0u 325:<\/p>\n

T\u00f3l \u00feetta hefir einkum fengi\u00f0 mikla \u00fe\u00fd\u00f0ingu \u00e1 seinni t\u00edmum, eptir a\u00f0 Frakklend\u00edngurinn Daguerre uppg\u00f6tva\u00f0i \u00fe\u00e1 hina undrunarver\u00f0u list, a\u00f0 geta teki\u00f0 me\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed gl\u00f6ggar og varanlegar lj\u00f3smyndir af hverjum l\u00edkama, sem vera skyldi. – En \u00feessi list er svo m\u00f6rgum vandkv\u00e6\u00f0um bundin, og a\u00f0fer\u00f0in vi\u00f0 hana svo margbrotin, a\u00f0 v\u00e8r \u00feorum ekki a\u00f0 r\u00e1\u00f0ast \u00ed a\u00f0 l\u00fdsa henni.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

M\u00e9r er ekki kunnugt um, a\u00f0 s\u00e9rstaklega hafi veri\u00f0 fjalla\u00f0 um stj\u00f6rnulj\u00f3smyndun \u00e1 \u00edslensku fyrr en l\u00f6ngu s\u00ed\u00f0ar, e\u00f0a hausti\u00f0 1898. \u00de\u00e1 birti \u00dej\u00f3\u00f0\u00f3lfur <\/em>al\u00fe\u00fd\u00f0lega grein eftir franska stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0inginn C. Flammarion<\/a>. H\u00fan bar nafni\u00f0 \u201eLj\u00f3smyndan af himinhvolfinu\u201c og var \u00ed fj\u00f3rum hlutum (I<\/a>, II<\/a>, III<\/a> og IV<\/a>). \u00deeirri fr\u00f3\u00f0legu grein l\u00fdkur me\u00f0 or\u00f0um, sem sennilega eiga jafn vel vi\u00f0 \u00ed dag og fyrir 120 \u00e1rum:<\/p>\n

\u00d3! Stjarnfr\u00e6\u00f0ingurinn vildi \u00f3ska s\u00e9r, a\u00f0 lei\u00f0togar l\u00fd\u00f0sins, l\u00f6ggjafarnir, stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lagarparnir hef\u00f0u t\u00e6kif\u00e6ri til a\u00f0 sko\u00f0a uppdr\u00e1tt himinsins og skilja hann. Ef \u00feeir sko\u00f0u\u00f0u hann \u00ed r\u00f3, mundi \u00fea\u00f0 vera mannkyninu gagnlegra en \u00f6ll r\u00e6\u00f0uh\u00f6ld stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lagarpanna. Ef menn vissu, hve sm\u00e1 j\u00f6r\u00f0in er, h\u00e6ttu menn ef til vill, a\u00f0 hluta hana \u00ed sundur. Fri\u00f0urinn mundi r\u00edkja \u00e1 j\u00f6r\u00f0unni, au\u00f0leg\u00f0 mannf\u00e9lagsins mundi koma \u00ed sta\u00f0 hinnar fj\u00e1rey\u00f0andi, sv\u00edvir\u00f0ilegu og vi\u00f0bj\u00f3\u00f0slegu herna\u00f0ar-vitfirringar, stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1la-flokkdr\u00e6ttirnir mundu hverfa og mannkyni\u00f0 mundi \u00fe\u00e1 geta hafizt frj\u00e1lst handa, lagt stund \u00e1 alheims\u00feekkinguna, \u00e1 \u00feekkinguna \u00e1 n\u00e1tt\u00farunni og lifa\u00f0 \u00ed nautn skynsemdar-l\u00edfsins. En \u00fev\u00ed mi\u00f0ur! v\u00e9r erum eigi svo langt komnir, og lj\u00f3smyndunarauga\u00f0 mun afhj\u00fapa margan himneskan leyndard\u00f3m, \u00e1\u00f0ur en mannsauga\u00f0 l\u00edtur skynsemina og v\u00edsindin byggja r\u00edki sitt \u00ed vorri litlu, veltandi k\u00falu.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

 <\/p>\n

Litr\u00f3f himintungla<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00cdsak Newton var\u00f0 fyrstur til a\u00f0 rannsaka liti s\u00f3larlj\u00f3ssins me\u00f0 a\u00f0fer\u00f0um, sem vi\u00f0 \u00ed dag k\u00f6llum v\u00edsindalegar. Jafnframt setti hann fram l\u00edfseiga kenningu \u00feess efnis, a\u00f0 lj\u00f3si\u00f0 v\u00e6ri straumur agna. \u00cd byrjun n\u00edtj\u00e1ndu aldar var hins vegar or\u00f0i\u00f0 lj\u00f3st, a\u00f0 mun au\u00f0veldara var a\u00f0 \u00fatsk\u00fdra margv\u00edslega eiginleika lj\u00f3ssins me\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 gera r\u00e1\u00f0 fyrir a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 v\u00e6ri einhvers konar bylgjuhreyfing (sj\u00e1 n\u00e1nar um lj\u00f3si\u00f0 h\u00e9r<\/a>).<\/p>\n

Um svipa\u00f0 leyti uppg\u00f6tvu\u00f0u n\u00e1tt\u00faruspekingurinn W. H. Wollaston<\/a> og lj\u00f3sfr\u00e6\u00f0ingurinn J. Fraunhofer<\/a>, a\u00f0 litr\u00f3f s\u00f3lar er ekki samfellt, heldur eru \u00ed \u00fev\u00ed d\u00f6kkar l\u00ednur, svokalla\u00f0ar litr\u00f3fsl\u00ednur. \u00dea\u00f0 var \u00fe\u00f3 ekki fyrr en 1859, sem e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0ingurinn G. Kirchhoff<\/a>\u00a0 og efnafr\u00e6\u00f0ingurinn R. Bunsen<\/a> komust a\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed me\u00f0 tilraunum, a\u00f0 litr\u00f3fsl\u00ednurnar\u00a0 eru \u00ed raun einskonar fingraf\u00f6r frumefnanna. Me\u00f0 ranns\u00f3knum \u00e1 \u00feeim er h\u00e6gt a\u00f0 efnagreina, ekki a\u00f0eins margskonar l\u00fdsandi fyrirb\u00e6ri heldur einnig kalt efni, svo framarlega sem \u00fea\u00f0 hleypir einhverju lj\u00f3si \u00ed gegnum sig.<\/p>\n

\u00deessi uppg\u00f6tvun \u00feeirra Kirchhoffs og Bunsens \u00e1tti eftir a\u00f0 valda meirih\u00e1ttar byltingu, ekki a\u00f0eins \u00ed stjarnv\u00edsindum, heldur einnig \u00ed efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i, e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i og fleiri greinum (stutt yfirlit yfir s\u00f6gu litr\u00f3fsfr\u00e6\u00f0i m\u00e1 finna h\u00e9r<\/a>; sj\u00e1 einnig h\u00e9r<\/a>).<\/p>\n

\"\"
\u00c1 m\u00e1lverkinu til vinstri s\u00e9st Newton rannsaka litasamsetningu s\u00f3largeisla (litr\u00f3fi\u00f0) me\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0\u00a0 l\u00e1ta geislann fara \u00ed gegnum glerstrending. Lj\u00f3smyndin til h\u00e6rgri s\u00fdnir seinni t\u00edma framsetningu \u00e1 sama vi\u00f0fangsefni.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
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Hin fr\u00e6ga teikning J. Fraunhofers af litr\u00f3fi s\u00f3lar fr\u00e1 1814-15. Rau\u00f0i liturinn hefur lengstu bylgjulengdina, en s\u00e1 fj\u00f3lubl\u00e1i stysta. Greinilega m\u00e1 sj\u00e1 d\u00f6kku (litr\u00f3fs)l\u00ednurnar \u00ed annars samfelldu s\u00f3larr\u00f3finu. Ferillinn fyrir ofan s\u00fdnir styrk s\u00f3larlj\u00f3ssins \u00e1 mismunandi bylgjulengdum.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Fraunhofer sko\u00f0a\u00f0i ekki a\u00f0eins litr\u00f3f s\u00f3larinnar, heldur einnig r\u00f3f tunglsins, reikistjarna og nokkurra fastastjarna. Hann t\u00f3k eftir \u00fev\u00ed, a\u00f0 r\u00f3f s\u00f3lstjarnanna voru mismunandi og \u00f6\u00f0ruv\u00edsi en s\u00f3larr\u00f3fi\u00f0. Hinsvegar vissi hann ekki hvernig \u00e6tti a\u00f0 t\u00falka \u00feessar ni\u00f0urst\u00f6\u00f0ur og sneri s\u00e9r \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 \u00f6\u00f0rum vi\u00f0fangsefnum.<\/p>\n

\u00derj\u00e1t\u00edu og fimm \u00e1rum eftir dau\u00f0a Fraunhofers var g\u00e1tan loksins leyst. \u00dear var Kirchhoff enn \u00e1 fer\u00f0inni og haf\u00f0i a\u00f0 lei\u00f0arlj\u00f3si uppg\u00f6tvun \u00feeirra Bunsens. Me\u00f0 samanbur\u00f0i litr\u00f3fa t\u00f3kst honum, \u00e1ri\u00f0 1861, a\u00f0 s\u00fdna fram \u00e1, a\u00f0 margar af d\u00f6kku l\u00ednunum \u00ed s\u00f3larr\u00f3finu st\u00f6fu\u00f0u af lj\u00f3s\u00edsogi frumefna, sem \u00feekkt voru \u00e1 j\u00f6r\u00f0inni.<\/p>\n

Grein Kirchhoffs<\/a> um \u00feetta efni olli \u00fe\u00e1ttaskilum \u00ed stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i. H\u00e9r ver\u00f0ur s\u00fa saga ekki rekin, n\u00e9 taldir upp allir \u00feeir sem komu a\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 \u00fer\u00f3a litr\u00f3fsm\u00e6lingar \u00ed \u00fea\u00f0 horf sem s\u00ed\u00f0ar var\u00f0. \u00deeim, sem vilja kynna s\u00e9r efni\u00f0 frekar, m\u00e1 benda \u00e1 \u00e1g\u00e6tis yfirlit h\u00e9r<\/a> og h\u00e9r<\/a>.<\/p>\n

\u00de\u00f3 er r\u00e9tt a\u00f0 geta \u00feess h\u00e9r, a\u00f0 \u00cdtalinn G. B. Donati<\/a>, s\u00e1 sem halastjarnan 1858 er kennd vi\u00f0,\u00a0 var einn af frumkv\u00f6\u00f0lunum \u00ed \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 beita litr\u00f3fsgreiningu \u00ed stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i.\u00a0 Grein hans<\/a> fr\u00e1 1862 um litr\u00f3f fimmt\u00e1n bjartra s\u00f3lstjarna var fyrsta greinin \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed svi\u00f0i. A\u00f0 auki var\u00f0 hann fyrstur til a\u00f0 m\u00e6la litr\u00f3f halastj\u00f6rnu, eins og s\u00fdnt er \u00e1 myndinni h\u00e9r fyrir ne\u00f0an.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Fyrsta litr\u00f3fi\u00f0<\/a>, sem n\u00e1\u00f0ist af lj\u00f3si halastj\u00f6rnu, teikna\u00f0i\u00a0 G. B. Donati. Um er a\u00f0 r\u00e6\u00f0a halastj\u00f6rnu, sem s\u00e1st \u00e1ri\u00f0 1864 og kennd er vi\u00f0 stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0inginn W. Tempel<\/a>. \u00c1 teikningunni er litr\u00f3f halastj\u00f6rnunnar bori\u00f0 samam vi\u00f0 litr\u00f3f s\u00f3larinnar.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Eini Nor\u00f0urlandab\u00fainn \u00ed h\u00f3pi frumkv\u00f6\u00f0lanna \u00ed litr\u00f3fsfr\u00e6\u00f0i \u00ed kringum 1860 var Sv\u00edinn A. J. \u00c5ngstr\u00f6m<\/a> \u00ed Upps\u00f6lum. Eftir hann liggur miki\u00f0 verk um litr\u00f3f s\u00f3larinnar (texti og t\u00f6flur<\/a> \u00e1samt kortab\u00f3k<\/a>), sem var lengi helsta heimildin \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed svi\u00f0i. A\u00f0 auki var\u00f0 hann fyrstur til \u00feess a\u00f0 m\u00e6la litr\u00f3f nor\u00f0urlj\u00f3sa<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Eftir \u00fev\u00ed sem \u00e9g kemst n\u00e6st var \u00fea\u00f0 Benedikt Gr\u00f6ndal sk\u00e1ld, sem fyrstur manna fr\u00e6ddi \u00edslenska al\u00fe\u00fd\u00f0u um litr\u00f3fsm\u00e6lingar og notkun \u00feeirra \u00ed stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i. \u00dea\u00f0 var \u00ed ritger\u00f0inni T\u00edminn<\/a>, sem hann birti \u00ed t\u00edmariti s\u00ednu Gefn \u00e1ri\u00f0 1872. Ritger\u00f0in l\u00fdsir fyrst neikv\u00e6\u00f0um sko\u00f0unum Benedikts \u00e1 borgaralegu l\u00edfi mannanna, en s\u00ed\u00f0an tekur hann fyrir hi\u00f0 andlega l\u00edf og tilraunir manna til a\u00f0 skilja tilveruna. Hann l\u00fdsir \u00fev\u00ed, sem hann telur vera \u00ferj\u00e1r helstu n\u00fdjungarnar \u00ed v\u00edsindum samt\u00edmans, ranns\u00f3knir \u00e1 s\u00f3linni, \u00fer\u00f3unarkenningu Darwins og ranns\u00f3knir \u00ed forn(leifa)fr\u00e6\u00f0i.<\/p>\n

\u00cd upphafi kaflans um s\u00f3lina segir hann me\u00f0al annars:<\/p>\n

V\u00e8r h\u00f6fum \u00e1\u00f0ur \u00ed riti \u00feessu geti\u00f0 \u00feess, a\u00f0 s\u00f3lin ynni allt sem \u00e1 j\u00f6r\u00f0unni er; fyrir hennar krapt lifnar l\u00edfi\u00f0, og \u00feegar h\u00fan hverfur, \u00fe\u00e1 sofnar \u00fea\u00f0 e\u00f0a dofnar; h\u00fan er ors\u00f6k til allrar litarpr\u00fd\u00f0i og allrar fegur\u00f0ar, og h\u00fan r\u00e6\u00f0ur jafnt fj\u00f6ri andans sem krapti l\u00edkamans.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Nokkrum bla\u00f0s\u00ed\u00f0um s\u00ed\u00f0ar sn\u00fdr s\u00e9r a\u00f0 s\u00f3larlj\u00f3sinu:<\/p>\n

S\u00f3larlj\u00f3si\u00f0 er \u00ed sj\u00e1lfu s\u00e8r hv\u00edtt e\u00f0a litarlaust […]<\/em> en l\u00e1ti menn n\u00fa s\u00f3largeisla falla inn \u00ed dimt herbergi \u00ed gegnum \u00feraungva rifu og haldi \u00fer\u00edstrendu gleri fyrir, \u00fe\u00e1 sj\u00e1st enir s\u00f6mu litir og \u00feeir sem \u00ed regnboganum eru. Me\u00f0 n\u00e1kv\u00e6mari sko\u00f0an […]<\/em> komust menn a\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed, a\u00f0 \u00ed \u00feessum regnbogalitum eru svartar r\u00e1kir h\u00e8r og hvar.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Eftir nokkra umr\u00e6\u00f0u um e\u00f0li lj\u00f3ssins og s\u00f3larinnar, \u00fear sem \u00feeir Fraunhofer og Kirchhoff eru me\u00f0al annars nefndir, kemst hann loks a\u00f0 a\u00f0alatri\u00f0inu:<\/p>\n

Me\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 hita [hluti]<\/em> svo mj\u00f6g a\u00f0 \u00feeir ver\u00f0i a\u00f0 lopti, og sko\u00f0a s\u00ed\u00f0an geisla lopts og m\u00e1lma \u00e1 sama h\u00e1tt og s\u00f3largeislann, \u00fe\u00e1 geta menn fundi\u00f0 \u00f6ll \u00feau efni sem \u00fear eru \u00ed, hversu l\u00edti\u00f0 sem af \u00feeim er; \u00fev\u00ed hverr hlutur brennur svo, a\u00f0 \u00ed geisla hans koma enar sv\u00f6rtu r\u00e1kir \u00e1 sinn vissa h\u00e1tt, og \u00f6\u00f0ruv\u00edsi en \u00ed \u00f6\u00f0rum hlutum. En \u00feess ber a\u00f0 geta, a\u00f0 \u00ed s\u00f3larlj\u00f3sinu eru sv\u00f6rtu r\u00e1kirnar undantekn\u00edngar, en \u00fear \u00e1 m\u00f3ti eru lj\u00f3sr\u00e1kirnar undantekn\u00edngar \u00ed enum jar\u00f0nesku efnum; \u00feau eru dimm, en s\u00f3lin bj\u00f6rt; sv\u00f6rtu r\u00e1kirnar \u00ed s\u00f3larlj\u00f3sinu merkja \u00fea\u00f0, a\u00f0 h\u00fan hefir \u00fear mist geislana, anna\u00f0 hvort \u00ed sj\u00e1lfri s\u00e8r, e\u00f0a \u00fe\u00e1 \u00e1 lei\u00f0inni \u00ed gegnum himingeiminn. Menn hafa einnig sko\u00f0a\u00f0 stj\u00f6rnulj\u00f3s \u00e1 \u00feenna h\u00e1tt og fundi\u00f0 hi\u00f0 sama: menn hafa \u00fear fundi\u00f0 hin s\u00f6mu frumefni og \u00e1 vorum hnetti.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Benedikt fjallar mun \u00edtarlegar um litr\u00f3fsgreiningu \u00ed hinni l\u00e6silegu b\u00f3k sinni, Steinafr\u00e6\u00f0i og jar\u00f0arfr\u00e6\u00f0i,<\/em> sem kom \u00fat 1878 og var lengi notu\u00f0 sem kennslub\u00f3k vi\u00f0 L\u00e6r\u00f0a sk\u00f3lann (sj\u00e1 bls. 36-37).<\/p>\n

\u00dea\u00f0 var hinn merki v\u00edsindama\u00f0ur og al\u00fe\u00fd\u00f0ufr\u00e6\u00f0ari \u00deorvaldur Thoroddsen<\/a>, sem n\u00e6stur fjalla\u00f0i \u00e1 \u00edslensku um n\u00fdjungarnar \u00ed stjarnv\u00edsindum, fyrst stuttlega \u00e1ri\u00f0 1880 \u00ed ritger\u00f0 um jar\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0i<\/a> (bls. 67-68) og aftur tveimur \u00e1rum s\u00ed\u00f0ar \u00ed langri grein um S\u00f3lina og lj\u00f3si\u00f0<\/a>. \u00c1 n\u00e6stu \u00e1ratugum \u00e1tti \u00deorvaldur eftir a\u00f0 skrifa margar fr\u00f3\u00f0legar greinar fyrir \u00cdslendinga um framfarir \u00ed stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i, e\u00f0lisfr\u00e6\u00f0i og efnafr\u00e6\u00f0i. Ekki ver\u00f0ur um \u00fe\u00e6r fjalla\u00f0 \u00ed \u00feessari f\u00e6rslu, en \u00f6rstutt yfirlit m\u00e1 finna h\u00e9r<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Frekari umfj\u00f6llun um \u00fe\u00e1 byltingu, sem \u00e1tti s\u00e9r sta\u00f0 \u00ed stjarnv\u00edsindum \u00e1 seinni hluta n\u00edtj\u00e1ndu aldar, m\u00e1 til d\u00e6mis finna h\u00e9r<\/a>, h\u00e9r<\/a> og h\u00e9r<\/a>.\u00a0 Einnig er r\u00e9tt a\u00f0 benda \u00e1 athyglisver\u00f0a grein eftir Le\u00f3 Kristj\u00e1nsson<\/a> um \u00e1hrif lj\u00f3sfr\u00e6\u00f0i \u00e1 \u00fer\u00f3un stjarnv\u00edsinda<\/a>, \u00fear sem hi\u00f0 vatnst\u00e6ra \u00edslenska silfurberg<\/a> er \u00ed a\u00f0alhlutverki. A\u00f0 mati Le\u00f3s hefur \u00edslenska silfurbergi\u00f0 ekki a\u00f0eins skipt sk\u00f6pum \u00ed stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0i, heldur veri\u00f0 meirih\u00e1ttar \u00e1hrifavaldur \u00ed \u00fer\u00f3un v\u00edsinda og t\u00e6kni<\/a>.<\/p>\n

\u00dea\u00f0 er vel vi\u00f0 h\u00e6fi a\u00f0 lj\u00faka \u00feessari f\u00e6rslu me\u00f0 tilvitnun \u00ed \u00e1\u00f0urnefnt rit A. M. Clerkes um s\u00f6gu stj\u00f6rnufr\u00e6\u00f0innar \u00e1 n\u00edtj\u00e1ndu \u00f6ld. \u00dear segir \u00e1 bls. 142:<\/p>\n

Up to the middle of the [nineteenth]<\/em> century, astronomy, while maintaining her strict union with mathematics, looked with indifference on the rest of the sciences; it was enough that she possessed the telescope and the calculus. Now the materials for her inductions are supplied by the chemist, the electrician, the inquirer into the most recondite mysteries of light and the molecular constitution of matter. She is concerned with what the geologist, the meteorologist, even the biologist, has to say; she can afford to close her ears to no new truth of the physical order. Her position of lofty isolation has been exchanged for one of community and mutual aid. The astronomer has become, in the highest sense of the term, a physicist; while the physicist is bound to be something of an astronomer.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Um \u00feessar mundir (j\u00fan\u00ed 2018) eru li\u00f0in 160 \u00e1r fr\u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed fyrst s\u00e1st glitta \u00ed l\u00edtinn hno\u00f0ra \u00e1 stj\u00f6rnuhimninum \u00ed gegnum sj\u00f3nauka \u00ed Fl\u00f3rens \u00e1 \u00cdtal\u00edu. \u00c1 n\u00e6stu m\u00e1nu\u00f0um \u00e1tti hno\u00f0rinn eftir a\u00f0 \u00fer\u00f3ast \u00ed\u00a0eina fallegustu halastj\u00f6rnu, sem s\u00f6gur fara af.\u00a0 Mikil hrifning greip um sig me\u00f0al almennings \u00ed Evr\u00f3pu og Bandar\u00edkjunum og hausti\u00f0 1858 […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[4,5,9,14,15],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-4669","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-edlisfraedi","category-efnafraedi","category-nitjanda-oldin","category-staerdfraedi","category-stjornufraedi"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4669","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=4669"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4669\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=4669"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=4669"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/wizardly-antonelli.176-10-35-210.plesk.page\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=4669"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}